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Syllabus 

OF 

A Course of Study 

ON 

The History and Principle 
of Education 



BY 



PAUL MONROE, Ph.D., 

PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, 
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



Copyright, 1908, by 
TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
NEW YORK CITY 



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Columbia XHruversits 
in the <Tit£ of IFlew H>otk 

Syllabus 

OF 

A Course of Study 

ON 

The History and Principles 
of Education 



BY 



PAUL MONROE, Ph.D., 

1 ,■ 

PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, 
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



Copyright, 1908, by 
TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
NEW YORK CITY 



a > ■* 



(> 



1 wo Copies rieceuee 

JUL 9 J908 

COPY B. 



THE HISTORY AND PRINCIPLES OF 
EDUCATION 

PREFATORY NOTE. 

No attempt has been made to make these reference lists exhaustive. 
Professor Cuberley's excellent Syllabus of Lectures in the History of 
Education (Macmillan, 1904) furnishes a most complete analytical biblio- 
graphy of the subject, so that a second work of this type is not needed. 
The design here has been to give the most available and usable literature 
and that which is apt to be found in the ordinary college or normal school 
library; hence few references to literature in foreign languages are made. 
Titles to French and German works are occasionally given where the liter- 
ature in English is meagre and some specially valuable work on the subject 
is not translated. The best references on each list are starred. As this 
syllabus is designed to accompany the text prepared and used in this de- 
partment, reference to the author's Text Book in the History of Education, 
the Brief Course in the History of Education, and the Source Book in the 
History of Education for the Greek and Roman Period are in every in- 
stance given first and to their abbreviated titles only. The references to 
the Text Book and Brief Course are alternative, not supplementary. 



THE HISTORY AND PRINCIPLES OF 
EDUCATION 

I. Significance of the Study of the History of Education. 

(i) The Chief Purpose of the Study is to lead finally to an understand- 
ing of present educational ideals, practices, tendencies, and problems. 
It does so — 

(II) First, by an Interpretation of Educational Traditions which con- 
stitute a very large part of accepted ideals and practices, and 

(III) Second, by giving Proper Perspective and thus guarding against ex- 
treme waves of opinion or educational fads. 

(IV) Such a Study Develops a Variety of Interests in eduucation, 
which in the teacher should be commensurate with those of the child. 

(V) It Focuses the Knowledge Gained in Other Studies, as history, lit- 
erature, philosophy, etc., upon the professional interests of the teacher. 

(VI) It Assists in Formulating Ideals or Standards of Action, to 
guide the teacher in the concrete work of the school-room. 

(VII) It Unites in the Concrete Historic Process the rational concep- 
tion of education as development and the social conception as adjust- 
ment. 

References : Burnham, The History of Education, in Proceedings of So- 
ciety of College Teachers of Education, 1908. Cubberly, Syllabus of 
Lectures on the History of Education, chap. xxi. Compayre, History 
of Pedagogy, intro. Davidson, The Use of the History of Education 
in Normal Schools, in Journal of Pedagogy, Sept., 1907. Dewey, Re- 
lation of Theory to Practice in Education, in Proceedings of National 
Society for Scientific Study of Education, 1904. Hall, What is Peda- 
gogy? Pedagogical Seminary, vol. XII. Hinsdale, The Training of 
Teachers in Butler's Education in the United States, Vol I. Hinsdale, 
Studies in Education, chap. viii. Harris, Quick's Educational Reform- 
ers, intro. Kemp, History of Education, preface. Kiehle, The History 
of Education, What It Stands For, School Review, vol. IX, p. 314. 
Laurie, Historic Survey of Pre-Christian Education, intro. Montmo- 
rency, The Lessons of the History of Education, in National Education 
and National Life. Moore, The History of Education, School Review, 
vol. XI, p. 356. Norton, Scope and Aim of the History of Education, 
Educational Review, vol XXVII, p. 443. Payne, Practical Value of 
the History of Education, Proceedings of the National Educational 
Association, 1889. Reudiger, Recent Tendencies in Normal School, 
Educational Review, March, 1907. Suzzallo, The Professional Use of 
the History of Education, in Proceedings of the Society of College 
Teachers of Education, 1908. Williams, Value of the History of Edu- 
cation to Teachers, in Proceedings of the National Educational Asso- 
ciation, 1889. 

5 



6 History and Principles of Education 

II. Primitive Education. 

(I) The Significance of Primitive Education to the modern student lies 
in the fact that it presents the problem of education in its simplest 
form and in its broadest outline. This problem is the adjustment to 
one's environment through the control of symbols, knowledge of 
which grows out of the past experience of the race. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 1-2: Brief Course, p. 1. *Davidson, 
History of Education, chaps, i, ii, iii. 

(II) This Expression and Preservation of Past Experience and the 
control of present through symbols is callen animism. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 2-6: Brief Course, pp. 6-8. Cox, 
The Mythology of the Aryan (esp. bk. I). Cox, Mythology and Folk 
Lore. Frazer, The Golden Bough (passim). Lubbock, The Origin of 
Civilisation, chaps, i, ii, v, vi, vii. Owen, Folk Lore of the Musquaki. 
United States Bureau of Ethnology (Reports), vol. I, p. 17, Sketch of 
Mythology of North American Indians; vol. VII, p. 143, Grand Medi- 
cine Society of Ogibwas; vol. VII, p. 301, Sacred Formulas of the 
Cherokees. *Spencer, Principles of Sociology, vol. I, chaps, vi-xxvi. 
Tylor, Anthropology, chaps, iv-xii. *Tylor Primitive Culture, vols. I 
and II. Vignole, Myths and Science. 

(III) Means for the Attainment of Educational Aim. 

1. The practical education of primitive peoples is gained (1) through 
direct training in the family group, (2) through the primitive 
division of labor and (3) in the rudimentary beginnings of the 
class or caste system. 

2. The theoretical training, the attempts at interpretation of experi- 
ence is given through the shamans, exorcists or medicine men and 
later through the priesthood. 

3. The method is that of initiation either indirect, or direct as seen 
in the highest stage in an apprenticeship caste system. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 13-16 : Brief Course, pp. 1-4. Catlin, 
Customs and Conditions of North American Indians. Chamberlain, 
The Child; A Study of the Evolution of Man. Chamberlain, Child- 
hood, in Folk Lore and Folk Thought. Kidd, Savage Childhood; A 
Study of Kaffir Children. Letourneau, L'Evolution de I'education 
dans les diverses races humanies, chaps, i-ix. Starr, First Steps in 
Human Progress, chaps, xxi, xxii, xxiv, xxv, xxvi. *Spencer, F. C, 
Education of the Pueblo Child. Spencer & Gillen, Native Tribes of 
Central Australia, chaps, iii, iv, vii, viii, ix, xvi. Spencer & Gillen, 
Northern Tribes of Central Australia, chaps, iii, v, vi, xi, xiii, xv, xxii. 
United States Bureau of Ethnology, Report,, vol. X. Education of a 
Mexican Boy, pp. 1-14. United States Bureau of Ethnology, vol. Ill, 
p. 67, Masks and Aboriginal Customs; vol. V, p. 379. Mountain Chant, 
A Navajo Ceremony; vol. V, p. 533, Religious Life of a Zuni Child; 
vol. XVI, p. 267, Tusayons Snake Ceremonies; vol. VII, p. 641, Cere- 
monial of the Navajo. 



Oriental Education 7 

(iV) The Transition to the Early Stages of Civilization is marked by 
the formation — 

i. Of a teaching class, 

2. Of a traditional subject-matter for study, usually religious in 
character, 

3. The elaboration of a formal method. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 13-15 : Brief Course, pp. 8-10. Dav- 
idson, History of Education, chap. ii. Letourneau, L' Evolution de 
V education dans les races humanies, chaps, vii, viii, ix. *Morgan, 
Ancient Society, pt. I. Starr, First Steps in Human Progress, chaps, 
xxi, xxii, xxiv, xxv. Tylor, Primitive Culture, chap. xix. 



III. Oriental Education. 



(I) The Significance of Oriental Education is found in the fact that 
it represents a type of educational thought and practice once univer- 
sally prevalent and yet widely existent; namely, education as the re- 
capitulation of the past and for the purpose of preserving custom 
unchanged. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 46-49 : Brief Course, pp. 23-25. Dav- 
idson, History of Education, pp. 24-30. Hegel, Philosophy of History, 
pt. I, (intro.). *Rosenkranz, Philosophy of Education, pp. 190-195. 
Gulick, The Evolution of the Japanese, chaps, xxxvi, xxxvii. 

(II) The General Characteristics of Oriental Education are 

1. The suppression of individuality, 

2. The control of external authority in the practical and in the 
thought life. 

3. The static character of their society and of their educational ideals, 

4. The dominance of a priest-craft or of religion over education, 

5. The importance of linguistics and of religious literature. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 46-49: Brief Course, pp. 24-30. 
Hegel, Philosophy of History, pp. 116-121. *Rosenkranz, Philosophy 
of Education, pp. 183-202. 

(III) The Essential Features of the Chinese System of education are: 

1. A conception of education as a recapitulation of the past through 
the dominance of a religious-ethical literature whose authority is 
exercised by the ruling learned class. 



8 History and Principles of Education 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 17-18: Brief Course, pp. 11-12. 
*Laurie, Pre-Christian Education, pt. Ill, pp. 120-121. Lewis, The 
Educational Conquest of the Far East, pp. 129-143. Martin, The Chi- 
nese, pp. 57-59. *Martin, The Lore of Cathay, bk. IV. Smith, Vil- 
lage Life in China, pp. 70-73. *Williams, Middle Kingdom, pp. 520- 
524. 

2. The dominance of influences which have prevented progress. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 23, 26, 39-41 : Brief Course, pp. 12- 
13, 23-25. Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese, vol. II, chap. 4. Doug- 
las, Language and Literature of China, pp. 1-58. *Laurie, Pre-Chris- 
tian Education, pp. 104-120. *Martin, The Lore of Cathay, bk. III. 
Taylor, Ancient Ideals, vol. I, pp. 45 -47. 

3. The close relationship between social life and education. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 18-19: Brief Course, pp. 11. Bard, 
Chinese Life in Town and Country, chap. xii. Doolittle, Social Life 
of the Chinese, vol. I, chaps, xii-xiv. *Laurie, Pre-Christian Educa- 
tion, pp. 104-108, 1 15-120. Miiller, The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 
XXVI, bks. I and II. *Smith, Chinese Characteristic (passim). 

4. The religious-ethical basis of education as found in Confucianism. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 19-23: Brief Course, pp. 11-13. Doo- 
little, Social Life of the Chinese, vol. I, pp. 252-3. *Martin, Lore of 
Cathay, bk. III. *Martin, The Chinese, pp. 102-109. Smith, Village 
Life in China, pp. 76-77. Smith, Chinese Characteristics, pp. 303-313. 
Williams, Middle Kingdom, vol. I, pp. 656-666; vol. II, chap, xviii. 

5. The duration of the system for two thousand years with but few 
essential changes, and its extent over vast territory and population. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 24-26. Brown, New Forces in the 
Old China. Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese, vol. I, pp. 376-379. 
Lewis, Educational Conquest, pp. 95-102. *Martin, The Chinese, pp. 
57-75. Martin, Education in China, pp. 257-271. (United States Bu- 
reau of Education, 1877). *Williams, A History of China, (esp. 
chap. vii). 

6. A content of linguistic and religious material, its highly developed 
organization of a hierarchial system of examinations, and its 
method of servile imitation. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 26-39 • Brief Course, pp. 13-18. Ball, 
Things Chinese, pp. 234 et. seq. Bard, Chinese Life in Town and 
Country, chap. xii. Bryson, Child Life in China. Doolittle, Social Life 
of the Chinese, vol. I. chaps, xv, xvii, xviii. French, Our Boys in 
China, chap. xii. Headland, The Chinese Boy and Girl. Lewis, Edu- 
cational Conquest of the Far East, chaps, i, ii, iii, vi, xii, xiii, xiv, xv, 
xvi, xvii. *Martin, Lore of Cathay, pp. 286-296, 398-324. Martin, The 
Chinese, pp. 1-97, 212-214. *Smith, Village Life, chaps, ix, x. Wil- 
liams, Middle Kingdom, pp. 524-562. Wilkinson, Education of Asiatics, 
pp. 685-689. 

7. The results are — 

(1). Social stability, but no social progress; 



Oriental Education 9 

(2). The disparagement of important social interests and the 
entire elimination of intellectual interests except the literary; 

(3). The perpetuation of formalism in life; 

(4). On the part of the individual the development of great 

intellectual abilities of certain restricted type, but with slight 

power of initiative. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 41-46: Brief Course, pp. 23-25. 
*Laurie, Pre-Christian Education, pp. 145-151. Lewis, Educational 
Conquest, pp. 117-121. *Martin, Lore of Cathay, pp. 324 etc. Smith, 
Chinese Characteristics, chaps. 17-27. Williams, Middle Kingdom, pp. 
563-572. 

(IV) The Essential Features of Hindu Education are — 

1. The dominance of a caste system of society and of education based 
upon religion with a prominent philosophical element and a liter- 
ature of great merit; 

2. An educational system that is adapted to each caste, but affords 
literary and formal education only to the upper and the priestly 
caste ; 

3. A system that both theoretically and practically considers the sup- 
pression of individuality as the highest ideal. 

References : Monroe, Brief Course, pp. 19-21. Carus, The Gospel of 
Buddha. Chamberlain, Education in India. Compayre, History of 
Education, pp. 2-6. Curtis, Modern India, pp. 397-412. Davidson, His- 
tory of Education, pp. 55-56. Denning, Mosaics from India, chaps, xv- 
xviii. Duncker, History of Antiquity, vol. VI, bk. 5, chaps, iv, v, vi, 
vii; bk. 6, chaps, ii, vii, viii. Dutt, History of Civilisation in Ancient 
India (passim). Hegel, Philosophy of History, pt. I, sec. 2. Kemp, 
History of Education, pp. 36-34. *Laurie, Pre-Christian Education, 
pp. 165-188. Rosenkranz, Philosophy of Education, pp. 200-202. *Tay- 
lor, Ancient Ideals, vol. I, chaps, iii and iv. 

(V) The Essential Features of the ancient Hebrew Education : 

1. The formal education of the people through the ceremonial law, 
constitutes a large part of their religious literature; 

2. Hence the same subjection of the individual to external authority; 

3. The provision for individuality through the emphasis on moral 
personality in this religious literature was expressed by the pro- 
phets and became prominent only with the decline of nationality; 

4. The very tardy development of any formal literary education for 
any except the priesthood; no system of schools developed until 
near the opening of the christian era; 

5. The practical education of the child through the family and his 
moral education through the priesthood and ceremonial law. 

Sources : Old Testament, esp. Deuteronomy and Proverbs. The Talmud. 
Rabbi-Akabah. An ancient Jewish primer (in U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
cation, 1894, vol. II). 






10 History and Principles of Education 

References: Monroe, Brief Course, pp. 21-23. Davidson, History of Edu- 
cation, pp. 77-86. Edersheim, Jewish Social Life, chaps, vii, viii, xvii, 
xviii. Hegel, Philosophy of History, pp. 202-207. Imber, Education 
and the Talmud (U. S. Bureau of Education, 1894, vol. II). Kemp, 
History of Education, pp. 45-55. *Laurie, Pre-Christian Education, pp. 
69-105. Leipziger, *The Education of the Jews. Milman, History of 
the Jews (passim). Rosenkranz, Philosophy of Education, pp. 241-9. 
*Spiero, The School System of the Talmud. Strassburgher, Gesehichte 
der Erzichung und des Unterrichts bei den Israeliten. Taylor, 
Ancient Ideals, chaps, xvii-xxi. 

(VI) The Essential Features of Egyptian Education, probably the 
most ancient as well as one of the most enduring of all ancient sys- 
tems, were — 

1. The controlling influence of caste in social life and education; 

2. The control of the education of all lower castes through a system 
of family training, a caste apprenticeship system; 

3. The control of society by a politico-religious priestcraft to which 
belonged the keeping of the religious literature upon which their 
society and their education was based; 

4. The prominence of mathematical, scientific and philosophical ele- 
ments in this literature and in the education of this priesthood and 
in their investigations; 

5. The mediating character of their education as contrasted with the 
oriental education on one hand, and the education of the Greeks 
on the other. 

Sources : The Egyptian Book of the Dead. 

References : Bunsen, Egypt's Place in History. Burgsch, Egypt under the 
Pharaohs, chap. i. *Davidson, History of Education, pp. 37-41. 
Duncker, History of Antiquity, vol. I, bk. I, chaps, ii, iii, vii. Edwards, 
Pharaohs, Fellahs and Explorers, chaps, v, vi, vii. Erman, Life in 
Ancient Egypt, chaps, xii, xiv, xv, xviii. Hegel, Philosophy of His- 
tory, pp. 206-232. *Laurie, Pre-Christian Education, pp. 13-52. Mas- 
pero, Ancient Egypt and Assyria, pt. I. Rawlinson, Ancient Egypt, 
chaps, iv, v, ix, x, xi. Taylor, Ancient Ideals, vol. I, pp. 25-42. Wil- 
kinson, Manners and Customs of Ancient Egyptians, chaps, iii, iv, xi. 



IV. Greek Education. 



(1) The Significance of Greek Education to the modern student results 
from the following characteristics : — 

1. In Greek education individuality was not suppressed but was con- 
sciously striven for; 

2. This produced a developing standard and organization in educa- 
tion as contrasted with the fixed oriental system; 



Greek Education 11 

3. The Greek educational writers dealt with the problem of the har- 
monization of individual development and interests with those of 
society at large as expressed in institution, and hence dealt with 
the whole problem of education as it is presented in the present 
time. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 52-61 : Brief Course, pp. 28-30. Dav- 
idson, History of Education, pp. 87-95. *Davidson, Education of Greek 
People, chap. ii. Davidson, Aristotle, chaps, i-vi. Laurie, Pre-Chris- 
tian Education, pp. 196-226. St. John, Manners and Customs of An- 
cient Greece, pp. 107-112. 

(II) The Characteristics and Ideals of the Greek people which deter- 
mined their educational ideals were — 

1. The devotion of the individual or citizen to the public good; 

2. The state or the institutional organization of society devoted to 
the protection or development of the individual ; 

3. The development of personality on the intellectual side ; knowledge 
for knowledge sake, first upheld; 

4. The development of the aesthetic personality or the ability to ap- 
preciate and express a general truth in a concrete embodiment; 

5. The determination of these aims in this life that have by all 
peoples been accepted as worthy. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 59-61 : Brief Course, pp. 28-30. 
*Butcher, Some Aspects of Greek Genius. Clarke, Ten Great Re- 
ligions, pp. 259-270. ^Davidson, Education of Greek People, chap. ii. 
Davidson, Aristotle, chaps, i-vi. *Dickinson, The Greek View of 
Life, pp. 1-40, 61-64, 66-81, 103-125, 126-144, 156- 173, 187-194. Hegel, 
Philosophy of History, pp. 232-276. Laurie, Pre-Christian Education, 
pp. 196-226. Pater, Greek Studies, pp. 195-319. St. John, Manners and 
Customs of Ancient Greece, bk. I, chap. ii. Taylor, Ancient Ideals, 
pp. 240-248. 

(III) The Greek City State was the institution which determined the 
fundamental character of their education, since — 

1. The individual must attain to excellence of character in the ways 
indicated above in order to become a member; 

2. The city state was the institution through which the individual 
attained to any higher development of personality. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 67-70. *Butcher, Some Aspects of 
Greek Genius, pp. 47-84. *Davidson, Education of Greek People, chap, 
ii. *de Coluange, The Ancient City, bk. Ill, chap, xvii; bk. IV, chap, 
x-xi. ^'Dickinson, The Greek View of Life, chap. ii. Duruy, History 
of Greece, vol. II, pt. II. *Fowler, The City State of the Greeks and 
Romans, chap. ii. Grasberger, Erziehung und Unterricht in Classi- 
chem Altherthum, vol. Ill, pp. 554-592. Lane, Elementary Greek Ed- 
ucation, pp. 28-85. Mahaffy, Greek Life and Thought, chap. xiii. 
Taylor, Ancient Ideals, vol. I, pp. 234-240. 



12 History and Principles of Education 

(IV) Education in the Homeric Period was that of a people passing 
from the stage of barbarism to that of civilization. Even here the 
tolerance of individualism is found : 

1. In the ideals of the man of action in bravery and reverence; 

2. In the ideals of the man of wisdom in prudence and temperance; 

3. In the council or the chief educational institutions and the insti- 
tution which provided for the emergence of the individual. 

Sources : Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 62-67 : Brief Course, pp. 31-73. 
Bliimmer, Home Life of the Ancient Greeks, pp. 99-102. *Davidson, 
Education of the Greek People, pp. 53-63. Davidson, Aristotle, pp. 15- 
18, 33-34. Davidson, History of Education, pp. 86-94. Grote, History 
of Greece, vol. I, chap. 20. Ker, Epic and Romance, pp. 1-57. Lane, 
Elementary Greek Education, pp. 1-29. *Mahaffy, Social Life in 
Greece, pp. 1-74. Monroe, Source Book of the Greek and Roman Edu- 
cation, pp. 1-3. St. John, Manners and Customs of Ancient Greece. 
Symonds, Studies of the Greek Poets, pp. 13-23, 51-161. Taylor, 
Ancient Ideals, pp. 127-194. 

(V) Spartan Education represents the old Greek education. Its charac- 
teristics were — 

1. The dominance of institutional training over individualism; 

2. The neglect of intellectual, literary and artistic elements in edu- 
cation ; 

3. A great emphasis on the physical element in education with a cor- 
responding stress upon military preparation as the great social 
need; 

4. A great emphasis upon moral training through the formation of 
proper habits as well as through instruction. The instruction in 
morals by the adults was the only formal training given except the 
physical. 

5. No other people have so consciously used every social institution 
to obtain educational ends, consequently the state assumed a social- 
istic form but the school as such hardly appeared. 

Sources : Plutarch, Life of Lycurgus, and other selections given in Monroe, 
Source Book, pp. ix, xvi, xxiv. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 70-79 : Brief Course, pp. 33-40. 
Bliimmer, Home Life of the Ancient Greeks. Davidson, Aristotle, pp. 
41-52. Freeman, The Schools of Hellas, pp. 11-42. *Grote, History 
of Greece, chap. xxix. Gulick, The Life of the Ancient Greeks. Lane, 
Elementary Greek Education, pp. 28-38. *Laurie, Pre-Christian Edu- 
cation, pp. 228-248. Mahaffy, Greek Life and Thought. Mahaffy, 
Social Life in> Greece. *Mahaffy, Old Greek Education. Plutarch, 
Life of Lycurgus. St. John, Manners and Customs of Ancient Greece. 
Wilkins, National Education in Greece, pp. 1-60. 



Greek Education 13 

(VI) Athenian Education of the Old Greek Period extended to the 
middle of the 5th century B. C. Its general characteristics were : 

1. The dominance of institutional even over individualism; 

2. Yet a far greater provision for individual development was given 
than at Sparta; 

3. Personality was developed because the state demanded the attain- 
ment to some form of intellectual, aesthetic and moral worth over 
and above the mere physical, military and political demands of the 
state ; 

-""4T~ This opportunity for individual development increased with the 
growth of democracy and the growth of the political power of 
Athens based upon her intellectual superiority. 

5. While less socialistic than at Sparta, various social institutions 
were made to contribute in a conscious way to these educational 
ends ; 

6. Differing from Sparta a definite school system consisting of music 
schools, gymnastic schools, and a state system of training of the 
youth or ephoebs was developed. 

7. The results of this old Greek education are seen in the intellectual, 
artistic, literary and social achievements of the Periclesian Age. 

Sources : Thucydides, Plato, Protagoras, Plutarch, etc. Selections given 
in Monroe, Source Book, pp. 11-25, 2 4 _ 33- 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 79-100: Brief Course, pp. 40-51. 
Blummer, Home Life of the Ancient Greeks, pp. 103-132. Bosanquet, 
Education of the Young in Plato's Republic. Davidson, Aristotle, pp. 
60-90. *Davidson, Education of the Greek People, pp. 6yyy. David- 
son, History of Education, pp. 94-105. *Dickinson, Greek View of Life. 
Freeman, A. J., The Schools of Hellas, pp. 42-210. Gulick, The Life 
of the Ancient Greeks. Hobhouse, Ancient Education, pp. 1-29. Lane, 
Elementary Greek Education, pp. 39-85. *Laurie, Pre-Christian Edu- 
cation, pp. 248-300. Mahaffy, Greek Life and Thought. Mahaffy, 
Social Life in Greece. *Mahaffy, Old Greek Education. Nettleship, 
In Abbott's Heilenica. St. John, Manners and Customs of Ancient 
Greece. Symonds, Studies of the Greek Poets, pp. 372-436. Taylor, 
Ancient Ideals, pp. 20-298. Wilkins, National Education in Greece, 
pp. 60-101. 

(VII) The New Greek Education includes the period from the middle 
of the 5th century B. C. to the fusion of Greek with Roman culture. 

1. The period of transition covering approximately the first century 
or century and a half of this period was one of conflict between 
the education of the old institutionalism for the state with the new 
education of individualism, in which individualism won the victory. 

Sources : Aristophanes, The Clouds, and other selections in Monroe, 
Source Book, pp. 51-66. 



14 History and Principles of Education 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 102-110: Brief Course, pp. 52-55. 
Davidson, Aristotle, pp. 93-107. *Davidson, Education of Greek Peo- 
ple, pp. 78-88, 103-115. Draper, Intellectual Development of Europe, 
pp. 126-142. Fowler, The City State, chaps, v, vi. *Grote, History of 
Greece, vol. Ill, chap, lxvii, esp. 66. 384-400. Laurie, Pre-Christian 
Education, pp. 300, etc. Symonds, Studies of the Greek Poets, pp. 32- 
39. Zeller, Socrates and the Socratic Schools, chaps, i, ii. 

2. The Sophists were the teachers of the new individualism and be- 
came the means for meeting these new educational demands of 
society or of individuals. They taught no commond body of 
knowledge, but gave the individual the training which his needs or 
opportunities demanded. 

Sources : Isocrates : Plato, The Sophists, and other selections given in 
Monroe, Source Book J pp. 91-116. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 117-120: Brief Course, pp. 55-57. 
Davidson, Aristotle, pp. 100-104. *Davidson, Education of Greek 
People, pp. 88-102. *Grote, History of Greece, chap, lxvii, pp. 401-429. 
Hobhouse, Ancient Education, pp. 16-20. *Jowett, Introduction to 
Plato's "Sophist," pp. 373-382. Laurie, Pre-Christian Education, pp. 
301-308. Newman, Historical Sketches, chap. v. St. John, Manners, 
and Customs of Ancient Greece, bk. I, chap. vii. Wilkins, National 
Education in Greece, pp. 82-91. Zeller, Socrates and the Socratic 
Schools, pp. 1-4, 188-193. Zeller, Outlines of Greek Philosophy, pp. 
88-98. 



(VIII) The Greek Educational Theorists attempted to solve the prob- 
lem created by the conflict between the new individualism and the old 
institutionalism. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 120-122. Monroe, Brief Course, 
pp. 59-62. *Davidson, Education of the Greek People, chaps, iv, v. 
Davidson, Aristotle, pp. 93-114. Laurie, Pre-Christian Education, pp. 
300-305. 

1. Socrates found this solution in knowledge, as a basis of action. 
This knowledge, primarily an interpretation of one's own experi- 
ence and interests, found its motive in the interests of the indi- 
vidual and its basis in the experience of the past interpreted 
through the old institutionalism. 

Sources: The Socratic Dialogues of Plato, esp. Apology, Symposium, 
Crito, Phaedo, The Republic, and the Memorabilia of Xenophon. 
Selections in Monroe, Source Book, pp. 66-91. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 122-130: Brief Course, pp. 60-63. 
Curtius, History of Greece, vol. IV, pp. 140-164. *Davidson, Educa- 
tion of Greek People, pp. 105-127. Davidson, Aristotle, pp. 107-113. 
*Grote, History of Greece, chap, lxviii. *Godley, Socrates and Athe- 
nian Society, chaps, i, iii, vi. Pater, Plato and Platonism, chap. iv. 
Zeller, Socrates and the Socratic Schools, chaps, iii-x. 



Greek Education 15 

2. Plato agreed with Socrates that knowledge was this fundamental 
bond between the individual and society, securing at the same time 
the highest interests of both; but went beyond Socrates in 

a. The elaboration of this concept of "knowledge" ; 

b. The elaboration of the method for attaining knowledge — 
dialetic; 

e. The elaboration of scheme of education for attaining this 
end, or at least in the description of societies in which the 
ideal was reached. 

Sources : Plato, The Republic, The Laws. *Selections in Monroe, Source 
Book, pp. 129-272. )Also in Adamson and Bosanquet. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 130-146: Brief Course, pp. 63-68. 
*Adamson, Education in Plato's Republic, pp. 10-254. *Bosanquet, 
The Education of the Young in Plato's Republic. Boyd, An Intro- 
duction to the Republic of Plato, passim. Davidson, Aristotle, pp. 
I 33 _I 50- *Davidson, Education of Greek People, chap. vi. Hobhouse, 
Ancient Education, pp. 22-29. *Nettleship, Theory of Education in 
Plato's Republic, (in Evelyn Abbott's Hellenica, pp. 67-180.) Pater, 
Plato and Platonism, chaps, v, vi, vii. Zeller, Plato and the Older 
Academy, chaps, i, iv, v, vi. 

3. Aristotle found this solution in well being, — knowledge as the 
individualistic element, — and well doing, — action as the social ele- 
ment, — as the dual educational and moral ideal. 

Sources : Aristotle, Ethics, Politics. Selections in Monroe, Source Book, 
PP- 153-202. Burnet, On Aristotle. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 146-160 : Brief Course, pp. 68-73. 
Bradley, Aristotle's Conception of the State (In Evelyn Abbott's Hel- 
lenica, pp. 218-221.) *Burnet, Aristotle on Education. ^Davidson, 
Aristotle, pp. 153-202. Davidson, Education of Greek People, chap. vii. 

(IX) The Cosmopolitan Period in Greek Education. This period in- 
cludes the period from the 5th century to the disappearance of the 
characteristic Greek features in Roman cosmopolitanism. It was 
marked by the diffusion of the Greek language and culture over the 
east, and the establishment of rhetorical and philosophical schools and 
finally of universities. 

Sources : Selection in Monroe, Source Book, pp. 295-326. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 160-173 : Brief Courses, pp. 73-78. 
*Capes, University Life in Ancient Athens, chaps, i-iv. ^Davidson, Aris- 
totle, bk. 4. Davidson, Education of the Greek People, chaps, vii, ix. 
Dill, Roman Society in last Century of Western Empire, Hibbart Lec- 
tures, 1888, Lecture II. Hegel, Philosophy of History, pp. 283-288. 
Hobhouse, Ancient Education, pp. 20-22. Laurie, Pre-Christian Edu- 
cation, pp. 288-295. *Mahaffy, Greek Life and Thought, chaps, vii, viii, 
pp. 192-198; chap. xvii. Newman, Historical Sketches, chaps, iv, vii. 
Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, pp. 105-118. Symonds, The 
Greek Poets, pp. 39-50. 



16 History and Principles of Education 

V. Roman Education. 

(I) Roman Society Presents a Type of Education in which — 

i. The formal or school education is comparatively insignificant; 

2. The elementary school is devoted to the mastery of the merest 
rudiments of learning and is never considered of very great social 
importance ; 

3. The more advanced stages of formal education are concerned in 
the training for public service, for the most part included in the 
comprehensive activity — oratory. 

4. The practical genius of the Romans was best shown in their con- 
tributions to the institutional organization of society. These insti- 
tutional creations, (law, political organization, private property, 
the church, etc.) form their great permanent contributions to 
culture. 

5. Their education, therefore, is all directed to institutional service, to 
the state. 

Sources : The Law of the Twelve Tables, Cicero, De Oratore, Plutarch, 
Discourse on the Nurture of Children, Quintieian, Institutes of Ora- 
tory, Tacitus, De Oratoribus, and fragments from Plautus, Suetonius, 
Seneca, Juvenal, Pliny, etc., (given in Monroe, Source Book in the His- 
tory of Education for the Greek and Roman period, Pt. II.) Fling, 
Greek and Roman Civilization, Munroe, D. C, Source Book in Roman 
History. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 176-191 : Brief Course, pp. 81-85. 
Allen, Essays and Monographs, pp. 25-91. Becker, Gallus, pp. 178-181, 
182-198, 324-337. Clark, Education of Children at Rome, chap. i. 
Clarke, Ten Great Religions, chap. viii. Coulange, The Ancient City, 
pp. 470-529. Davidson, History of Education, pp. 105-111. ^Davidson, 
Education of the Greek People, chap, cciii. Davidson, Aristotle, bk. I, 
chap. i. Fowler, The City States of the Greeks and Romans. Gibbon, 
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chaps, xv, xvi. Hegel, Philoso- 
phy of History, pp. 293-307. *Laurie, Pre-Christian Education, pp. 
301-318. Lecky, History of European Morals, chap. i. May, Democ- 
racy in Europe, vol. I, chaps, iv, v. Montesquieu, Grandeur and De- 
candence of the Romans. Preston and Dodge, The Private Life of the 
Romans, pp. 1-11. Tighe, The Roman Constitution, chap, ii, et passim. 
*Taylor, Ancient Ideals, pp. 1-31. 

(II) The General Periods of Roman Education are: — 

1. The early historic period to the introduction of Greek educational 
influences (c. 146.). 

Sources : Monroe, Source Book, pp. 327-345, 371-386. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 191-193 : Brief Course, pp. 86-88. 
Addis, Legal Rights of Children, In Reports of the U. S. Commissioner 
of Education, 1896-1897, vol. I, pp. 615-622. Browning, History of Ed- 



Roman Education 17 

ucational Theories, pp. 26-32. Clark, Education of Children at Rome, 
chap. ii. *Duruy, History of Rome, vol. V, sec. II, chap, lxxxii. 
*Hobhouse, Ancient Education, pp. 29-32. *Laurie, Pre-Christian Ed- 
ucation, pp. 319-323. 

2. The period of modification by the Greek influences until the open- 
ing of the Imperial period. 

Sources : Monroe, Source Book, pp. 342-355. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 193-197: Brief Course, pp. 88-90. 
Church, Roman Life in the Days of Cicero, chaps, i, ii. *Clark, Edu- 
cation of Children at Rome. Davidson, History of Greek People, pp. 
203-229. Guhl & Koner, Life of the Greeks and Romans, (loc. cit). 
*Hobhouse, Ancient Education, pp. 32-44. *Laurie, Pre-Christian Edu- 
cation, pp. 323-330. Mahaffy, The Greek World under Roman Sway, 
pp. 61 -1 13. Maurice, Learning and Working, pp. 230-274. Preston and 
Dodge, The Private Life of the Romans, chap. iii. 

3. The Imperial period in which the Hellenistic educational influences 
were dominant in the formal institutional education. 

Sources : Monroe, Source Book, pp. 386-509. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 197-208 : Source Course, pp. 90-96. 
Browning, Introduction to History of Educational Theories, chap. ii. 
Capes, University Life in Ancient Athens, chaps, iv, v. *Clark, Edu- 
cation of Children at Rome, chaps, vi, vii. *Comparetti, Vergil in the 
Middle Ages, chaps, i-iv. Compayre, History of Pedagogy, chap. iii. 
*Dill, Roman Society in the last century of the Empire, chap. v. Dill, 
Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius (loc. cit.). Finley, 
Byzantine Empire, vol. II, p. 25. Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap, xxiii. 
Guizot, History of Civilization in France, vol. IV. Hobhouse, Ancient 
Education, pp. 44-49. Laurie, Rise of Universities, chap. i. *Laurie, 
Pre-Christian Education, pp. 330-389. Lecky, History of European 
Morals, vol. I, chaps, ii, iii. Newman, J. H., Office and Work of Uni- 
versities, chap. i. Newman, Historical Sketches, vol. III. Pellison, 
Roman Life in Pliny's Time, chap. i. Taylor, Ancient Ideals, pp. 1-55. 
Thomas, Roman Life under the Caesars, chap. ix. 

4. The late Imperial period from the 2nd Christian century: a period 
of formalization and of educational decline. 

Sources: Monroe, Source Book, pp. 361-371, 396-399, 416-420. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 208-218: Brief Course, pp. 96-99. 
Comparetti, Vergil in the Middle Ages, chap. v. Compte, Positive 
Philosophy, vol. Ill, pp. 72-81. Draper, Intellectual Development of 
Europe, vol. I, chap. viii. *Dill, Roman Society in the Last Century of 
the Empire, chap. v. Fisher, Beginnings of Christianity, chap. vi. 
Holmes, Age of Justinian, chap, iii, pp. 204-233. Kingsley, The Roman 
and the Teuton, Lect. II, III. *Laurie, Pre-Christian Education, pp. 
389-411. Laurie, Rise and Constitution of Universities, chap. i. 
Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, chaps, ii-xiv. *Taylor, 
Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages, chap. xvi. 

(Ill) Christian Influences. During this latter period Christianity be- 
came the dominant factor in Roman Life and the dominant element in 
Culture. The control of schools and of education passed to the Church. 



18 History and Principles of Education 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 217, 224-230 : Brief Course, pp. 96-99. 
vidson, Education of the Greek People, chap. ix. Dill, Roman Society 
in the Last Century of the Empire. Draper, Intellectual Development 
of Europe, chap. viii. Fisher, Beginnings of Christianity, pp. 40-73, 
162-178. Gibbon, Decline and Fall, vol. II, chaps, xv, xvi. Laurie, 
Pre-Christian Education, pp. 433-436. *Lecky, History of European 
Morals, vol. II, chap. iv. Maurice, Learning and Working, pp. 275-310. 
Mulligner, Schools of Charles the Great, chap. i. Taylor, Ancient 
Ideals, chap. xvi. 



VI. The Middle Ages. 

(I) The General Characteristics of Medijeval Education were — 

1. The subjection of the individual to institutions; 

2. The dominance of religious interests; 

3. The prevalence of idealism or the controlling force of great ideals ; 

4. The dominance of the simplest form of the disciplinary conception, 
namely, that education is a preparation for some future state or 
activity through activities of no immediate practical value. 

(II) Early Christian Education forms the First Stage of Medieval 
Education. 

1. Dominant features of early mediaeval civilization and education 
were due to the fact that the fundamental feature of the age was 
the contact of Christianity with pagan culture and the resulting con- 
flict and modification of both. 

Sources : Clement of Alexandria, Works (in Anti-Nicene Christian Li- 
brary, vol. IV). Fling, Greek and Roman Civilization. Jones, Civ- 
ilization in the Middle Ages, No. 1. Mitchell, The Canons of the First 
Four Councils, (in Trans, and Reprints, vol. IV, No. 2). 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 221-238: Brief Course, pp. 101-104. 
*Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap. iii. Draper, Intel- 
lectual Development of Europe, chap. ix. Fisher, Beginning of 
Christianity, chaps, ii, iv, v, vi. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire, vol. II, chaps, xv, xvi. *Hatch, Influences of 
Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church (Hibbart Lectures, 
1888), esp. chaps, ii-v. Holmes, The Age of Justinian and Theodora, 
p. 245. Kingsley, Hypatia, preface. Lecky, History of European 
Morals, bk. II, chap. iv. *MacCabe, St. Augustine and his Age, Mil- 
man, History of Latin Christianity, pp. 1-37. Moeller, History of the 
Christian Church, vol. I. Renan, Influence of Romans on Christianity, 
esp. Lect. I. *Taylor, Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages, chaps, 
v, vi. Taylor, Ancient Ideals, chap. xvi. 

2. The Attitude of the Christian Fathers towards Pagan Learning 
was at first friendly, but later with the Latin Fathers, became 
hostile. 



The Middle Ages 19 

Sources : Augustine, De Doctrina Christiana and Confessiones in Nicene 
Fathers, vol. II, III. Clement of Alexandria, *in Anti-Nicene Fathers, 
vol. II, chaps, iii, vi-x. Jerome, Epistles, pp. 22, 107, 129 *in Nicene 
Fathers, vol. VI, sec. II. Origin, De Principles, in *Anti-Nicene 
Fathers, vol. IV, bk. 3, chaps, iii, iv. Painter, Great Pedadogical Es- 
says, pp. 144-154. Robinson, Readings in European History, pp. 14-35. 
Tertullian, Prescriptions against Heresies; On Idolatry. 

References : Monroe, Text. Book, pp. 235-243 : Brief Course, pp. 104- 
108. Adams, Civilisation During the Middle Ages, chap. iii. Dill, 
Roman Society in the last Century of the Western Empire, bk. I; bk. 
IV, chap. v. Fisher, Beginnings of Christianity. Gaskoin, Alcuin, His 
Life and His Works, chaps, iv, v. Guizot, History of Civilisation, vol. 

I, Lect. 17. Hallam, Europe in the Middle Ages, vol. II, chap, ix, pt. I. 
*Hodgson. Primitive Christian Education, passim. Laurie, Pre-Chris- 
tian Education, pp. 261-7. *Lecky, History of European Morals, chaps, 
iii, iv. Maitland, The Dark Ages, chap. xi. Milman, History of Latin 
Christianity, bk. II, pp. 146, et. seq. *Mullinger, School of Charles the 
Great, pp. 1-11. Renan, Influence of Rome on Christianity, chaps i, ii. 
Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship. Taylor, Classical Heritage 
of the Middle Ages, chaps, i, vi. 

3. Early Christian Life was itself a schooling, and the church estab- 
lished, catechumenal, catechetical and episcopal or cathedral schools. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 230-235: Brief Course, pp. 108-110. 
Azarias, Essays Educational, pp. 1-36. Barnard, American Journal of 
Education, vol. XXIX, pp. 515-524. Drane, Christian Schools and 
Scholars, vol. I, chap. i. Guizot, History of Civilization in Europe, vol. 

II, Lect. 16. Hodgson, * Primitive Christian Education, passim. Lecky, 
History of European Morals, chap. iv. Laurie, Rise and Constitution 
of Universities, chap. ii. Putnam, Books and their Makers in the 
Middle Ages, vol. I, pp. 106-122. Williams, Mediceval Education, pp. 
17-24, 39-6i. 

(Ill) Monasticism represented education as moral discipline. 

1. The scope and ideals of monasticism were the determining influ- 
ences in formal, institutional education from the 6th to the 13th or 
14th century. 

Sources : Cassian, Institute, and Dialogues, Post Nicene Fathers, XIV, 
chap. xii. Henderson, Select Documents, Nos. 38-42, 48-63-70. Robin- 
son, Readings in European History, vol. I, chap. v. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 243-253: Brief Course, pp. 110-114. 
Cutts, Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages, pp. 1-91. Gibbon, 
Decline and Fall, vol. II, chap, xxxvii. Jameson, Legends of the Mon- 
astic Orders, pp. 1-13, 227-235. Kingsley, Chas., The Hermits. *Lecky, 
History of European Morals, chap. iv. Maitland, Dark Ages, No. X. 
Milman, History of Latin Christianity, bk. I, pp. 90-95 ; bk. II, chap, 
vi; bk. II, pp. 255-257. Montalembert, Monks of the West, Introd. 
chaps, ii-v, bks. Ill, IV, V. Mullinger, Schools of Charles the Great, 
pp. 24-30. Schaff, History of the Christian Church, vol. Ill, pp. 
148-198. Smith, Rise of Christian Monasticism, pt. I, chaps, i-iii. 
*Taylor, Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages, chap. vii. Wishart, 
Short History of Monks and Monasticism, chaps, i-iii. *Taylor, Class- 



20 History and Principles of Education 

ical Heritage of the Middle Ages, chap. vii. Wishart, Short History 
of Monks and Monasticism, chaps, iii, ix. Woodhouse, Monasticism, 
chap, iii, pp. 71-84. 

2. Monasticism was the only institution which fostered the literary 
education. It did this — 

(i) Through the toleration and the management of study in the 
monasteries ; 

(2) The establishment of schools in monasteries for their novices 
and often for externs ; 

(3) Through the custom of copying manuscripts; 

(4) Through the preservation of manuscripts and books from 
destruction ; 

(5) Through creative literary work in the form of chronicles, 
lives of saints, etc. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 253-267: Brief Course, pp. 1 14-123. 
Barnard, German Teachers and Educators, pp. 35-43. Clark, The Care 
of Books, pp. 144-148. *Clark, Libraries in the Mediaeval and Renais- 
sance Periods, pp. 9-22. Comparetti, Vergil in the Middle Ages, chaps, 
iii-xiv. Eckstein, Woman under Monasticism. Emerton, Mediaeval 
Europe, pp. 436-446. Gaskoin, Alcuin, pp. 1-57. Jessop, Coming of the 
Friars, chap, iii, pp. 127-132. Ker, The Dark Ages, pp. 138-150, 320- 
332. Lacroix, Paul, The Arts of the Middle Ages and of the Period 
of the Renaissance, pp. 423-442. Laurie, Rise and Constitution of Uni- 
versities, Lect. IV, V. Maitland, The Dark Ages, Nos. Ill, IV, XIV, 
XVIII. Montalembert, Monks of the West, bk. II, chap. i. Mullany, 
Essays Educational, I, II, and V. *Mullinger, Schools of Charles the 
Great, pp. 31-40. Newman, Historical Sketches, pp. 123-129. Poole, 
Illustration of Mediceval Thought, intro. *Putnam, Books and their 
Makers in the Middle Ages, vol. I, pp. 106-122. Sandys, History of 
Classical Scholarship, chap. xxiv. 

(IV) The Irish Element was a prominent factor in mediaeval culture 
and in the spread of monastic education and influence. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, p. 227. Drane, Christian Schools and 
Scholars, vol. I, chap. ii. Edgar, History of Early Scottish Ed- 
ucation, pp. 8-17. *Gaskoin, Alcuin, pp. 1-11. *Healy, Ireland's An- 
cient Schools and Scholars. Hyde, A Literary History of Ireland, 
chaps, xvi, xvii. Lawless, The Story of Ireland, pp. 42-49. Montalem- 
bert, Monks of the West, (vol. I, bk. VIII, chaps, ii, iii.) vol. III. 
*West, Alcuin, and Rise of Christian Schools, pp. 28-31. *Zimmer, 
The Irish Element in Mediceval Culture, pp. 19-131. 

(V) Early English Education, stimulated by the Celtic learning was 
also in a far more flourishing condition than learning on the continent 
from the 6th to the close of the 8th century. 

References : Drane, Christian Schools and Scholars, vol. I, chap. iii. Ed- 
gar, John, History of Early Scottish Education, pp. 17-19. *Gaskoin, 
Alcuin, pp. 1-40. Gairdner, Early Chronicles of Europe, England, pp. 
30-48. Green, A Short History of the English People, pp. 50-52. Haz- 
litt, W. C, Warton's History of English Poetry from the 12th to the 



The Middle Ages 21 

close of the 16th Century, vol. I, pp. 177-238. Healy, Ireland's Ancient 
Schools and Scholars. Hunt, Wm., The English Church from its 
Foundation to the Norman Conquest, chap. xiv. Milman, History of 
Latin Christianity, vol. II, bk. C, chap x. *Mullinger, The Schools of 
Charles the Great, pp. 49-51, 61-67. Newman, Historical Sketches, vol. 
I, pp. 1 16-129. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, pp. 438-442, 
448-454. Schaff, p., History of the Christian Church, vol. IV, pp. 19- 
76. * West, Alcuin, pp. 29-39. 

(VI) The Revival of Learning under Charles the Great stimulated and 
assisted by learning of Ireland, England, Italy, was the most notable 
educational movement during the first half of the Middle Ages. Its 
permanent results, however, were only of a most general character. 

Sources : Eigenhard, Life of Charlemagne. Painter, Great Pedagogical 
Essays, chaps, x, xi. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 274-279 : Brief Course, pp. 125-128. 
Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, pp. 163-164. Azarias, 
Essays Educational, pp. 39-46. Barnard, German Teachers and Edu- 
cators, pp. 5-7. Church, R. W., Beginnings of the Middle Ages, pp. 
I 33- 1 35> I 39 _I 4 2 - Davis, Charlemagne, chap. vii. Drane, Christian 
Schools and Scholars, chaps, v, vi. *Gaskoin, Alcuin, chap. ix. Guizot, 
History of Clivilization, bk. II, lect. 20; bk. Ill, lect. 22, 23. Ker, The 
Dark Ages, pp. 150-153. Laurie, Rise and Constitution of Universities, 
Lect. III. Mobert, History of Charles the Great, bk. II, chap, ix; bk. 
Ill, chap. i. Morley, English Writers, vol. II, chap. vi. *Mullinger, 
The Schools of Charles the Great. Newman, Historical Sketches, 
chap. xiii. Rashdall, Universities of Middle Ages, bk. I, pp. 26-32. 
Townsend, Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages, chap. ii. *West, 
Alcuin, chaps, ii, iii, iv, vii. Williams, Medieval Education, chap. iii. 

(VII) Mysticism Represents Education as a Spiritual Discipline. 

1. It originated from a combination of Grecian philosophy, oriental 
religious and philosophical beliefs, with certain teachings of 
Christianity. 

2. Theologically or philosophically it was the attempt to understand 
the ultimate nature of things through the Spirit of God as it per- 
vades all matter. 

3. Religiously, it was the effort to come into immediate communion 
with the Deity. 

4. Educationally mysticism commended asceticism as a physical dis- 
cipline and meditation and spiritual contemplation as a discipline 
to lead into higher truth. 

5. While mysticism dominated over but a small portion of the popu- 
lation, it influenced though as a whole throughout the Middle Ages 
and in all countries, and in its emphasis on symbolism reappears in 
modern form. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 279-284. Algar, Thorold, Dialogues 
of Seraphic Virgin, St. Catherine of Sienna, esp. Introduction. Hugo, 
St. Victor, Das Lehrbuck (German translation). In Sammlung 



22 History and Principles of Education 

Padagogischer Schiften, vol. XXIII. Inge, Personal Idealism and 
Mysticism, chap. v. Inge, Christian Mysticism (in eight Oxford Uni- 
versity Lectures) chaps, iii-vii. Oman, The Mystics, Ascetics and 
Saints of India, pp. 1-17. Recejac, Essays on the Bases of the Mystic 
Knowledge (translated by Upton). Vaughan, Hours with the Mystics, 
bks. IV, V. 

(VIII) The Seven Liberal Arts formed the content of learning during 
all of the middle ages, though during the University period the scope 
and content of each art was far broader than during the earlier cen- 
turies. Practically all the schoolmen and most of the great monastic 
writers wrote treatise upon the seven liberal arts, organized into the 
trivium, — grammar, rhetoric and logic — and the quadrivium, — arithme- 
tic, geometry, astronomy, and music. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 271-274: Brief Course. *Abelson, 
Paul, The Seven Liberal Arts (Teachers College Contributions to Ed- 
ucation, No. 11). *Davidson, Aristotle, appendix. Laurie, Rise and 
Constitution of Universities, pp. 57-67. Mullinger, J. B., History of 
University of Cambridge, vol. I, pp. 21-45. Newman, J. H., Historical 
Sketches I. Parker, H., The Seven Liberal Arts; in the English His- 
torical Review, vol. V, pp. 417-461. Poole, Illustration of Mediaeval 
Thought, chap. iv. Rashdall, Universities of Europe in Middle Ages, 
vol. I, chap. ii. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, pp. 237-256. 
Smith and Cheatham, "Dictionary of Christian Antiquities," article on 
Schools. *Taylor, Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages. West, 
Alcuin, chap. i. Williams, History of Medieval Education. 

(IX) Scholasticism Represents Education as an Intelligent Disci- 
pline. 

1. It originated from the new intellectual interests of the nth and 
12th centuries as these centred around the logical questions hand- 
ed down from previous generations. 

2. It was not a given body of beliefs or principles, but rather a 
method of organization of materials or a type of intellectual 
activity. 

3. Its purpose was to humanize philosophy or reason through religious 
beliefs. 

4. Its content was the theological and religious material furnished by 
the church, its form was that of the Aristotelian logic. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 292-313: Brief Course, pp. 128-136. 
Adams, History of Civilisation during the Middle Ages, pp. 368-372. 
Barnard, German Teachers and Educators, chap. i. Drane, Christian 
Schools and Scholars, pp. 324-365. Draper, Intellectual Development 
of Europe, vol. II, chap. i. Emerton, Mediaeval Europe, chap. xiii. 
French, Lectures on Mediaeval Church History, chap. xiv. Hallam, 
Middle Ages, bk. Ill, pp. 426-433. Haureau, de la Philosophic Schol- 
astique. Lacroix, Science and Literature in the Middle Ages, pp. 47-53. 
Laurie, Rise and Constitution of Universities, chaps, iii, iv. Maurice, 
Medieval Philosophy from the 5th to the 14th Centuries, chap. v. 



The Middle Ages 23 

*Mullinger, The University of Cambridge, pp. 46-64. Poole, Illustra- 
tions of Mediceval Thought, chap. v. *Rashdall, Universities of Europe 
in the Middle Ages, vol. I, chap. ii. Stille, Studies in Medieval Europe, 
chap. xiii. Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Ages, pp. 581- 
602. *Townsend, Great Schoolmen, chaps, v, vi. Weber, History of 
Philosophy, pp. 201-204. 

5. The Great Era of Scholasticism was from the middle of the nth 
to the 15th century. The thirteenth century was the period of 
greatest brilliancy. Peter the Lombard (1079-1142), Albertus 
Magnus (1 193-1280), Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), Duns Scotus 
(1271-1308), and William of Occam (1280-1347) were the most 
noted of the great schoolmen. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 302-307: Brief Course, pp. 134-137. 
*Compayre, Abelard and the Origin of Universities, pp. 1-23. Emer- 
ton, Mediceval Europe, pp. 462-464. Erdmann, History of Philosophy, 
vol. I, pp. 356-477. Encyclopedia Britannica, Articles on Abelard, St. 
Thomas Aquinas, Albertus Magnus, Duns Scotus, etc. Fischer, Des- 
cartes and his School, pp. 67-79. Haureau, de la Philosophic Scholas- 
tique. Lacroix, Science and Literature in the Middle Ages, pp. 53-68. 
Lewes, The History of Philosophy, vol. II, chap. iii. Maurice, Media- 
eval Philosophy from the 5th to the 14th Centuries, chap. v. Milman, 
H., History of Latin Christianity, vol. VI, bk. 14, chap. iii. Morley, 
English Writers, vol. Ill, pp. 316-325. *Mullinger, The Schools of 
Charles the Great, chap. v. Newman, Historical Sketches, chaps. 
xiv, xvi. Poole, Illustration of Mediceval Thought, chap. v. Sandys, 
History of Classical Scholarship, chaps, xxvii-xxxii. *Townsend, The 
Great Schoolmen, chap. x. Trench, Lectures on Mediceval Church 
History, Lect. XVIII. Ueberweg, History of Philosophy, vol. I, sec. 
98-104. 

(XI) The Universities Represent the First Independent Organization 
of Intellectual Interests. 

1. They originated in the great intellectual interests occasioned by 
the scholastic disputes. 

2. As with all interests and activities that existed during the middle 
ages, these intellectual interests must be given a corporate insti- 
tutional organization. This was furnished both by Papacy and 
Empire. 

3. Its organization followed that of the guilds, apprenticeship and 
chivalric system: a period of apprenticeship, one of journeyman- 
ship and one of mastership. These stages were indicated by de- 
grees, or licenses to practice the particular activities fostered by 
the institution, that of teaching. 

4. Around the stages were organized the nations of students, later 
the faculties of masters or teachers, and the other administrative 
officers. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 313-328: Brief Course, pp. 138-143. 
Barnard, German Teachers and Educators, pp. 7-10. *Compayre, 
Abelard and the Origin of Universities, parts I and II. Denifle, Die 



24 History and Principles of Education 

Enstehung der Universitaten des Mittelalters bis 1400, vol. I, pp. 40- 
158, 221-300. Drane, Christian Schools and Scholars, pp. 366-376, 
391-406, 451-475. Hallam, Middle Ages, vol. Ill, pp. 420-426. Jessup, 
Coming of the Friars, chap. vi. Kaufmann, Die Geschichte der Deut- 
schen Universitaten, vol. I, pp. 83-239. Lacroix, Science and Litera- 
ture in the Middle Ages, chap. i. *Laurie, Rise and Constiution of 
Universities, pp. 91-235. Mullany, Essays Educational, pp. 59-68. 
Mullinger, Encyclopedia Britannica, article on Universities. *Mullin- 
ger, History of University of Cambridge, pp. 65-80. *Paulsen, German 
Universities, pp. 16-57. Rashdall, Universities of Europe in Middle 
Ages, pp. 178-233, 273-335, 393-425. Newman, Historical Sketches, 
chap, xviii. Walden, Origin of Universities. Parker. Early History 
of Oxford, vol. Ill, pp. 727-1100. 

5. The Method of University Study was the two scholastic methods, 
the one expository, the other argumentative. 

6. The content of university studies were largely scholastic in char- 
acter, and comprised the mastery of a certain number of author- 
ized texts of grammar and logic in the faculty of arts, and of 
appropriate ones in the faculties of canon law, civil law, medicine 
and theology. 

7. Student life was more largely left to self government than in 
modern times, but in time was reduced to communal life in colleges, 
as it remains until to-day in England. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 323-325 : Brief Course, pp. 143-147. 
*Compayre, Abelard and the Origin of Universities, part III. Drane, 
Christian Schools and Scholars, pp. 376-382, 406-409. Denifle, Die 
Enstehung der Universitaten des Mittelalters, pp. 169-218. Kaufmann, 
Die Geschichte der Deutschen Universitaten, vol. I, pp. 344-431 ; II, 
pp. 158-418. *Laurie, Rise and Constitution of Universities, Lect. IV. 
Mullany, Essays Educational, pp. 68-101. Mullinger, Encyclopedia 
Britannica on Universities. *Mullinger, University of Cambridge from 
earliest times to Royal Injunctions of 1535, I, pp. 345-366 ; II, pp. 402- 
404, 414-429. *Rashdall, Universities of Europe, vol. I, pp. 426-478; 
vol. II, part II, pp. 440-469, 593-709. Robinson, Readings in European 
History, pp. 446-450. Walden, Origin of Universities, pp. 1 15-173. 
Sheldon, Student Life and Customs, chap. i. 

(XII) Chivalric Education constituted the formal education of the noble 
and gentry classes during the latter century of the Middle Ages. 

1. It originated from combined influence of the ideals of Christianity, 
the character of the Teutonic peoples, the structure of the late 
Roman and of the Teutonic civilizations and from the chaotic 
political conditions of the times. 

2. In its nature, it was the application (to the secular ruling class,) 
of the dominant mediaeval conception of education as discipline 
and as apprenticeship preparation. 

3. Its ideals were, courage, courtesy, service, and consideration for 
the weak and for inferiors. 



The Middle Ages 25 

Sources: The Book of Courtesy, or Little John (Caxton — 1447 — reprinted 
by University of Cambridge, 1907). Russell, Book of Nurture. 
Rhoades, Book of Nurture. Seagers, Book of Virtue. (These with 
others are given in Early Education in England, edited by Furnivall). 
Mallory, Morte d 'Arthur. Cheny, Documents Illustrative of Feudal- 
ism, Translations and Reprints, vol. IV, No. 3. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 284-288: Brief Course, pp. 147-150. 
Allen, J. H., Christian History, Second Period, chap. v. *Cornish, 
Chivalry, chaps, i, ii. Cutts, Scenes and Characters of the Middle 
Ages, pp. 353-368. Duruy, History of the Middle Ages, pp. 230-232. 
Francke, History of German Literature, pp. 63-72. *Furnivall, Early 
Education in England, pp. 1-17. *Gautier, Chivalry. Guizot, History 
of Civilisation, vol. IV, Lect. 6. Henderson, A Short History of Ger- 
many, vol. I, chap. v. Jones, Civilisation in the Middle Ages, chap. iv. 
Lacroix, Paul, Le Chevalorie et les croisades, pp. 86-148. *Mills, 
History of Chivalry, chaps, i, ii. Stille, C. J., Studies in Mediaeval 
History, chap. xii. Williams, History of Chivalry. *Wright, Woman- 
kind in Western Europe. 

4. The educational system of Chivalry consisted of an apprenticeship 
from about 7 to 14 years of age as a page, the service of a superior 
for about 7 years as a squire, culminating in the initiation into 
knighthood. 

Sources : As above. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 289-292. *Cornish, Chivalry, chaps, 
iii, viii. *Mills, History of Chivalry, chap. ii. 



(XIII) The Mendicant Monks or Friars. (Francescians, Dominicans, 
etc.) were the most active educational agents during the 13th and 14th 
centuries. They profoundly influenced the universities and included 
the leading schoolmen. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 330-332 : Brief Course, pp. 153-154. 
Analecta Franciscana. Arnold. Pagan and Mediaeval Religions Sen- 
timent in Essays in Criticism. Brodrick, History of University of Ox- 
ford, chap. v. Headlam, Oxford and its Story, chap. iv. Francke, 
Social Forces in German Literature, chap. iv. Jessup, Coming of the 
Friars. Little, The Grey Friars in Oxford (Oxford Historical So- 
ciety, vol. XX). Little, Educational Organisation of the Mendicant 
Friars in England (Royal Historical Society, new series vol. VIII). 
Lyte, History of University of Oxford, pp. 23-30. Macdonell, Sons of 
Francis. *Mulfinger, The University of Cambridge, pp. 85 ff. Oli- 
phant, Francis of Assisi, passim. Rashdall, The Friar Preachers vs. 
the University, (Collectanea-Oxford Historical Society, vol. XVI, pt. 
III). *Rashdall, Universities of Europe. "Oxford" in vol. II, pt. II. 
Wood, City of Oxford, vol. II, pp. 342-411. Woodhouse, Monasticism, 
Ancient and Modern. 

(XIV) The Closing Centuries (13TH to 15TH) of the Middle Ages. 
These were ages of great intellectual and educational activity. 

1. The 13th century formed a distinct educational revival. 



26 History and Principles of Education 

2. Scholasticism and the rise of the menicant monks, were the chief 
features. 

Sources: Dante's Banquet. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 328-351 : Brief Course, 150-159. 
* Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap. xii. Allen, J. H., 
Christian History, Second Period, chap. x. Draper, Intellectual De- 
velopment of Europe, vol. I, chap, xiii ; vol. II. chap, ii-iv. Harrison, 
German Teachers and Educators, pp. 125-130. Harrison, Meaning of 
History, chap. 5. *Monroe, Thomas Platter and the Educational Ren- 
aissance of the 16th Century, pp. 1-63. Owen, Skeptics of the Italian 
Renaissance, pp. 96-107. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, 
chaps, xxx, xxxi, xxxii. Schaff, The Renaissance. (Papers Ameri- 
can Society Church History, III) pp. 13-21. 

3. The character of the universities, the example of the monastic or- 
ders, or tradesmen and of minstrels, the desire to travel as the only 
means of broadening one's experience, and the facilities offered by 
the universal language of the scholar all tended to introduce the 
migratory life among students of all grades, from A, B, C shooters 
to university students. 

Sources : Butzback, Johannes, Chronica eines fahrendes S chillers. Thomas 
Platter: Autobiography (translated in Monroe's Thomas Platter and 
Educational Renaissance of the 16th Century) pp. 80-225. 

4. The introduction of Eastern learning, of practical achievements 
and inventions, and luxuries (silk, sugar, etc.) by the Arabs 
formed a prominent factor in this intellectual development. 

References : Ball, W. W. R., Short History of Mathematics, chaps, ix, x. 
*Coppee, H., A Short History of The Saracens, vol. II, pp. 370-374. 
*Draper, J. W., Intellectual Development of Europe, vol. II, chaps, ii, 
iv. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, vol I, pp. 539-550. 
Townsend, Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages, chap. ix. 



VII. The Renaissance. 



(I) The Meaning of Renaissance. 

1. The Renaissance was the revival of individualism after the pro- 
longed dominance of authority during the Middle Ages. 

2. The tendency towards individual liberty showed itself first in the 
economic and political life and then in the intellectual life. 

3. The recovery of most of the Greek and Italian literature long ne- 
glected and its more general diffusion furnished suggestion and a 
basis for the development of individualism in various lines. 

4. Thus the revival of the classical languages and literature became 
the chief characteristic of the Renaissance period. 



The Renaissance 27 

Sources : Robinson and Rolfe, Petrarch-Letters. Whitcomb, Source Book 
of the Indian Renaissance, pp. i-no. Benevento Celleni, Autobiog- 
raphy. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 351-357 : Brief Course, * Acton, Cam- 
bridge History, vol. I, chaps, vxi, xvii. *Adams, Civilisation during the 
Middle Ages, chap. xv. Andrews, Institutes of History, chap. viii. 
Burckhardt, The Renaissance in Italy, pt. Ill, chaps, i, iv, v, vi, ix; 
pt. IV, chaps, ii-v. Draper, Intellectual Development of Europe, pp. 
151-201. Drane, Christian Schools and Scholars, pt. II. Ducoudray, 
History of Modem Civilization, chaps, ix, x. *Emerton, Medieval 
Europe, chap. xiii. Guizot, F. P. G., History of Civilization, vol. I, 
chaps, xi, xii. Hallam, Literature of the Mediaeval Ages, vol. I. 
Lescomb, Loss and Recovery of Classical Manuscripts, Education II, 
2 3~377- Owen, Skeptics of the Italian Renaissance, pt. I. Pater, The 
Renaissance, pp. 31-52. Putnam, Books and their Makers, vol. I, pp. 
Praise of Folly, Colloquies and Educational Writings. 
317-347. Robinson and Rolfe, Petrarch, chaps, i, ii. Saintsbury, His- 
tory of Literary Criticism, vol. I, fl. Schaff, P., The Renaissance and 
the Reformation, in the Evangelical Alliance for the United States, 
Document XXX, pp. 17-25. Spingarn, History of Literary Criticism in 
the Renaissance. Stille, Studies in Mediaeval History, chap. xiii. 
*Symonds, A Short History of the Renaissance in Italy, chap. vii. 
*Symonds, The Renaissance in Italy; the Revival of Learning, chaps, 
i-iii, ix, pp. 239-298. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, chaps. 
xxx, xxxi, xxxii. Sandys, Classical Scholarship in the Renaissance. 

(II) The Renaissance in North (or Teutonic) Europe was less literary, 
aesthetic and individualistic, and more moral, social and institutional 
than in South or Latin Europe. 

Sources : Whitcomb, Source Book of the German Renaissance. Erasmus, 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 361-4: Brief Courses, pp. 165-167. 
Barnard, German Teachers and Educators. Barnard, The Heironymi- 
ans, Barnard's Journal, IV, p. 622. Beard, The Reformation in its Re- 
lation to Modern Thought, chaps, ix, x, xi. Hamlyn, The Universities 
of Europe at the Period of the Reformation. Francke, History of 
German Literature. Janssen, History of the German People at the 
Close of the Middle Ages, vol. I. Owen, Skeptics of the French Ren- 
aissance. *Paulsen, German Universities, chap. i. Russell, German 
Higher Schools. Saintsbury, History of Literary Criticism, vol, II. 
Scherer, History of German Literature, vol. I. vol. II, bk. IV. 

(III) The Renaissance in England. In England the Renaissance was 
less a matter of school than in Germany and less literary than in Italy. 
Nevertheless it profoundly affected with schools and literature as well 
as life in general. 

Sources : The references mentioned in Sec. IV of this chapter, in chapter 
x and in Section II of chapter viii, bear on this subject also. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 283-5 ' Brief Course, 179-180. 
*Ascham, The Schoolmaster. Barnard, Colet and St. Paul's School 
(in Barnard's Journal, XVI, p. 657, or English Pedagogy, Series II, 
pp. 49-117). Brodrick, C. C., History of the University of Oxford. 



/ 



28 History and Principles of Education 

pp. 70-74. Brinsley, Ludus Litterarius. Creighton, M., The Early 
Renaissance in England. Einstein, The Italian Renaissance in Eng- 
land. Elyot, The Gouvenour. Gasquet, F. A., Eve of the Reforma- 
tion, chap. ii. Hazlett, School, School Books and Schoolmasters. 
Wharton's History of English Poetry from the Twelfth to the close 
of the Sixteenth Century, vol. IV, sec. 36. Knight, Life of John Colet. 
Lupton, Life of John Colet. Morley, English Writers, vol. VII. Mul- 
linger, A History of the University of Cambridge, chap. iv. * Watson, 
Notices on Some Early English Writers on Education, Report U. S. 
Commissioner of Education, 1905. Vol. I. pp. 86-884. IQ02, vol. I, 
pp. 481-508. *Woodward, Education during the Renaissance. 



(IV) Educational Significance of the Renaissance. 

1. The classical languages and literature furnished the chief means 
to discovery of new interests and ideas and a chief means for 
overthrowing the arbitrary authority of institutions. 

2. The mastery of these languages and literature soon became the 
chief evidences of a marked individuality and a chief means of 
developing personality. 

3. Thus the study of the classical languages and literature soon be- 
came the chief work of the schools. 

4. At first this study was a means to developing personality and the 
aim of education included physical, aesthetic, social, moral and 
religious elements as well as intelectual and literary ones. 

5. Soon the study of these languages and literature became the sole 
work of the school and became the sole aim in education. Thus 
the broad liberal conception of education first elaborated in the 
renaissance movement gave place to a narrow humanistic one which 
controlled for centuries. 

Sources: Erasmus, Upon the Right Method of Study (in Woodward's 
Erasmus). Aeneas Sylvius, De Liberorum Educations P. P. Ver- 
genius, De Ingenuis Moribus; Leonardo Bruni, De Studiis et Literis. 
Guarino, De Ordine Docendi et Studendi (in Woodward, Vitterino da 
Feltre and other Humanistic Educators.) Whitcomb, Source Book of 
the Renaissance. Thomas Platter, Autobiography. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 364-375 : Brief Course, pp. 167-174. 
Barnard, German Teachers and Educators, pp. 41-97. Barnard, The 
Renaissance in Italy, in Barnard's Journal VII, pp. 413-460. Barnard, 
The Hieronymians, in Barnard's Journal, IV, pp. 614-528. Barnard, 
The Schlettstadt School and John Reuchlin, in Barnard's Journal, V, 
pp. 65-78. Compayre, History of Education, pp. 83-1 11. Davidson, 
History of Education, pp. 175-189. Drane, Christian Schools and 
Scholars, vol. II, chap. viii. Froude, Life and Letters of Erasmus 
Hazlitt, Schools, School Books and Schoolmasters, chaps, vii-ix. 
Janssen, History of the German People at the close of the Middle Ages, 
vol. I, chaps, i, ii. Jebb, Humanism in Education (Romanes Lectures). 
*Laurie, History of Education Opinions since the Renaissance. Mon- 
roe, Thomas Platter and the Educational Renaissance of the Sixteenth 
century, intro. Painter, History of Education, pp. 1 19-133. *Parker, 
History of Classical Education, in Farrar, Essays on Liberal Education. 



The Renaissance 29 

Quick, Educational Reformers, chaps, i-iii. Russell, German Higher 
Schools, chap. ii. *Woodward, Vittorino da Feltra, pp. 1-93, 134-161. 
*Woodward, Desiderius Erasmus, chap. ii. *Woodward, Education 
during the Renaissance. 

(V) Narrow Humanism. This Narrow Humanism in its most restricted 
phase, took the form of a most servile imitation of a few Latin auth- 
ors, among whom Cicero dominates as Aristotle did with the School- 
men. This phase of educational thought and practice was known as 
Ciceronianism. 

Sources : Erasmus, Dialogue on Ciceronianism, (in Scott and Monroe, 
Erasmus on Ciceronianism, in Teachers College Publications, 1908). 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 372-375 : Brief Course, pp. 120-124. 
Acton, Cambridge History, vol. I, chap. xvi. Barnard, German Teach- 
ers and Educators, pp. 89-100. 

(VI) Renaissance Education. 

1. The great humanists were for the most part great educators also, 
while most of the rank and file of schoolmasters became humanists. 

2. The great humanistic leaders in Italy were Petrarch, Boccacio, 
Barzizza; among the most noted school masters were Vitterino de 
Feltra, and Batesta Guarino. 

3. In Germany and Teutonic Europe Erasmus was the greatest hu- 
manist. Wessel, Agricola, Hegias, Wimpheling, Trotzendorf and 
Sturm, and above all Melancthon, were among the great schoolmen. 

4. In England, Linacre, Grocyn, Cheeke, Colet, and Moore were 
Humanists, while Ascham and Lilly and Brinsley were noted 
schoolmasters. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 374-285 : Brief Course, pp. 174-180. 
Barnard, German Teachers and Educators, pp. 41-84. ^Barnard, 
English Pedagogy, 1st. series, pp. 21-76; 2nd. series, pp. 49-81; 185- 
189; 225-243. Burckhardt, The Renaissance in Italy, vol. I, pp. 298- 
302. Drummond, Erasmus, chaps, vii, x et passim. Jebb, Humanism 
in Education, pp. 16-21. Laurie, History of Educational Opinion from 
the Renaissance, pp. 18-85. Laurie, The Renaissance and the School, 
in School Review, vol. IV, pp. 140-148, 202-214. Owen, Skeptics of the 
Renaissance, pt. II. Quick, Educational Reformers, pp. 22-32. See- 
bohm, Oxford Reformers, chaps, i, vi. Symonds, The Renaissance in 
Italy, pp. 289-301. Thurber, C. H., Vittorino da Feltra, in School Re- 
view, VII, pp. 295-300. *Woodward, Vittorino da Feltra, -pp. 1-178. 
Woodward, Education during the Renaissance. 

(VII) Types of Humanistic Schools. There existed in all countries 
under the influence and direction of these humanistic schoolmen. 

Sources : Whitcomb, Source Book of the Italian Renaissance, II, pp. 1-62. 
Brinsley, Ludus Literarius. Barnard, English Educators, 1st. series, 
pp. 21-77. 2n d. series, pp. 177-293. 



30 History and Principles of Education 

References: Barnard, John Colet and St. Paul's School, in Barnard's 
Journal, XVI, pp. 657-688; XXVIII, pp. 729-736. Barnard, German 
Teachers and Educators, pp. 85-92, 185-229. Barnard, English Peda- 
gogy, 2nd. series, pp. 1-177, 185-189, 225-293. Hamlyn, Universities of 
Europe at the Period of the Reformation. Laurie, The Renaissance 
and the School (as above). *Laurie, History of Educational Opinion 
from the Renaissance, pp. 1-93. Leach, English Schools at the Refor- 
mation. Russell, German Higher Schools, chaps, ii. *Woodward, 
Vittorina de Feltra, Erasmus, etc. as above. 



VIII. The Reformation. 



(I) Its Meaning. The Reformation was the Renaissance movement in 
North Europe directed towards the freeing of the individual from 
authority in his religious life, and towards moral reform in social 
institutions and life. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 401-403: Brief Course, pp. 189-191. 
*Adams, Civilisation during the Middle Ages, chaps, xvi, xvii. Beard, 
Martin Luther and the Reformation in Germany, chaps, i-ix. *Beard, 
The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century in its Relation to Modern 
Thought and Knowledge, Hibbert Lectures, 1883, chaps, i, ii, iv. 
^Cambridge History, The Reformation, chap. xix. Draper, Intellec- 
tual Development of Europe, II, pp. 205-214. Drane, Christian Schools 
and Scholars, II, chap. xi. Cheyney, E. P., Early Reformation Period 
in England, (Trans, and Reps., I, No. 1). Fisher, History of the Ref- 
ormation, chaps, i, ii, iii. Francke, Social Forces in German Literature, 
pp. 139-171. Hausser, Period of the Reformation, pp. 1-47. Hender- 
- son, A Short History of Germany, I, chap, xi, pp. 251-262. Jacobs, 
H. E., Martin Luther, pp. 59-168. Kostlin, Martin Luther, his Life and 
Works, pp. 64-202. Kurtz, Church History, II, pp. 231-317. Moeller, 
History of the Christian Church, pp. 479-522. Robinson and Whitcomb, 
Period of the Early Reformation in Germany, in Trans, and Reps. II, 
No. 6. Schmid, Geschichte der Ersiehung, II, pt. 2. Ward, The 
Counter-Reformation, pp. 1-16. Whitcomb, Period of the Later Ref- 
ormation, Trans, and Reps., Ill, No. 3. 

(II) The Reformation and Education. The Reformation exerted a 
profound influence upon both the theory and the practice of education. 

1. Its ultimate and general influence on theory was toward the devel- 
opment of the right of individual judgment and the critical spirit. 

2. However, its immediate influence very shortly became reactionary 
and resulted in the re-establishment of ecclesiastical and religious 
authority over its intellectual life. 

3. Its ultimate influence was towards 

a. A broader interpretation of the function of the school, 

b. Universal education which it advocated in theory, and 

c. The elimination of the old scholastic and formal religious in- 
struction from the school. 



The Reformation 31 

4. Its immediate influence, however, on account of the practical theo- 
logical strife, the destructive wars, and the obscuranted views of a 
considerable number of the minor leaders of the reformation was 
toward 

a. An undervaluation of educational effort and opposition to the 
humanistic interests, 

b. A destruction of the old schools and an inadequate supply of 
new ones. (This was especially the case in England.) 

c. A narrow religious or ecclesiastical conception of the function 
' of the school. 

d. The reintroduction of formal catechetical instruction as the 
chief subject in school work. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 403-8 : Brief Course, 191-194. Bar- 
nard, American Journal of Education, IV-IX, XX, XXIV. Barnard, 
German Teachers and Educators, pp. 92-96, 281-286. Compayre, His- 
tory of Education, chaps, vi, vii. Drane, Christian Schools and Schol- 
ars, chaps, xv-xxiv. Janssen, History of the German People at the 
Close of the Middle Ages, I, chaps, i-iv. *Laurie, Development of Ed- 
ucational Opinion since the Renaissance, chaps, iii, vii. Laurie, The 
Renaissance and the School; in School Review, IV, pp. 140-148, 202- 
214. Mertz, Das Schuhvesen der Deutschen Reformation, chaps, i, ii. 
Mullinger, The University of Cambridge, chap. v. Nohle, E., History 
of the German School System, in Rep. U. S. Commissioner of Educa- 
tion, 1897-1898, I, pp. 26-45. Painter, History of Education, pp. 153- 
194. *Painter, Luther as an Educator. Paulsen, German Universities, 
pp. 32-33, 137-144. Paulsen, Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, I, 
pp. 173-196. Paulsen, The Evolution of the Educational Ideal, in The 
Forum, XXIII, pp. 598-608, 672-685. Russell, German Higher Schools, 
chaps, ii-iv. 

(Ill) Some Reformation Educators. 

1. Martin Luther advocated : 

a. A universal education, 

b. A school system supported and controlled by the state, 

c. School work that should include practical, literary, scientific 
and religious elements, 

d. A trained body of secular teachers supported by the state. 

Sources: Luther, Letters to the Mayor and Aldermen of all German 
Cities. Sermon on the Duty of Sending Children to School. (Both 
translated in Painter, Luther on Education). Also extracts in Bar- 
nard, German Teachers and Educators. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 408-414 : Brief Course, 194-197. Bar- 
nard, German Teachers and Educators, pp. 131-161, 139-150, 421-459. 
Barnard, American Journal of Education, IV, XXIV, pp. 37-130. 
Meyer and Prinzhorn, Dr. Martin Luther's Gedanken iiber Erziehung 
und Unterrichts, pp. 91-194. ^Painter, Luther on Education, pp. 
169-271. Russell, German Higher Schools, pp. 28-34. Williams, His- 
tory of Modern Education, pp. 42-55. 



32 History and Principles of Education 

2. Philip Melancthon is called the preceptor of Germany. His educa- 
tional influence was exerted — 

a. Through his teaching at the University of Wittemberg for 
over 40 years. 

b. Through the great number of teachers which he trained. 

c. Through his numerous text books on almost every subject. 

d. Through his practical service in organizing schools and giving 
advice by correspondence to school authorities. 

e. By his addresses and writing on educational subjects. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 414-416: Brief Course, pp. 197-198. 
Barnard, German Teachers and Educators, pp. 161-184. Barnard, 
American Journal of Education, IV, pp. 741-764. Painter, History of 
Education, pp. 148-152. Paulsen, Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, 
pp. 203-209. *Richard, Philip Melancthon, the Protestant Preceptor of 
Germany, pp. 125-141. Russell, German Higher Schools pp. 34-35. 
Williams, History of Modern Education, pp. 91-96. 

(IV) Types of Reformation Schools. 

1. These schools were narrowly humanistic in their content with the 
addition of religious material, with strict disciplinary method. The 
religious character was most prominently revealed in their spirit 
and aim. 

2. The work of John Sturm at the Strassburgh Gymnasium was the 
most influential factor in developing the type of protestant human- 
istic schools. Here he elaborated the nine year classical course 
which served as a model throughout protestant countries. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 390-393 : Brief Course, pp. 200-201. 
*Barnard, German Teachers and Educators, pp. 209-233. Barnard, 
American Journal of Education, IV, pp. 401-415. *Laurie, History of 
Educational Opinion from the Renaissance, chap. iii. *Painter, His- 
tory of Education, pp. 159-164. Quick, Educational Reformers, pp. 27- 
32. Russell, German Higher Schools, pp. 42-44. Williams, History 
of Modern Education, pp. 96-101. 

3. Systems of vernacular elementary and classical secondary schools 
were developed in the protestant states of the Teutonic people 
and also under the Calvinists in Scotland and New England. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 416-420 : Brief Course, pp. 207-212. 
*Barnard, American Journal of Education, XI, pp. 159-164, 400-459 ; 
VI, pp. 426-432; XXVII, pp. 165-175. XXVIII, pp. 1-16. Browning, 
Oscar, Educational Theories, pp 1 18-127. Munroe, Educational Ideal, 
pp. 135-147. *Nohle, History of the German School System, in Rep. 
U. S. Com. of Ed., 1 897-1898, pp. 29-39. Paulsen, The Evolution of the 
Educational Ideal, in The Forum, XXIII, pp. 598-608, 672-685. Rus- 
sell, German Higher Schools, pp. 37-41, 50-58, 137-141. Wakeman, 
Europe, 1598-1715, chap. iii. 



The Realists, or the Early Scientific Tendenpy 33 

4. The Teaching Congregations of the Roman Catholic Church were 
organized to meet the new needs and furnished both elementary 
and secondary education for the catholic countries as well as 
schools for their co-religionists in various protestant countries. 

a. The Jesuit order was the most prominent of these, and con- 

fined its attention to secondary and higher education. 

b. The Port Royalists were influential in France, though they 

established but few schools. 

c. The Brethren of the Christian Schools, founded by La Salle, 

furnished elementary education in France, and to some extent 
in other countries 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 420-433; Brief Course, pp. 201-207. 
Arnold, Popular Education in France. *Ayarias, Essays Educational, 
Barnard, History of Instruction in France, Barnard, American Journal 
of Education, XX, p. 216. La Salle's Institute of Christian Brothers, 
Barnard, American Journal of Education, XIII, pp. 437-448; XXX, pp. 
7 2 9-735- Rollin, On the Education of Youth, ib. XXIII, pp. 17-46. 
Fenelon and his Educational Views, ib. XIII, p. 477. Port Royalists, ib. 
XXVII, pp. 1-26. Beard, Port Royal, II, chap. ii. Bowen, The Jan- 
senists and their Schools; in Educational Review, VI, pp. 485-492; 
VII, pp. 64-70. Browning, Educational Theories, pp. 1 18-127. *Cadet, 
Port Royal Education. Cartwright, The Jesuits, their Constitution 
and Teaching, chaps, ii, iii. Compayre, History of Pedagogy, chaps, 
vii, viii, xi, xii. *Hughes, Loyola and the Educational System of the 
Jesuits, chaps, iii, v, vi. Munroe, The Educational Ideal, pp. 135-147. 
Mertz, Die Pddagogik der Jesuiten, pp. 28-118. Nohle, History of the 
German School System, in Reports of the U. S. Commissioner of Ed- 
ucation, 1897-1898, pp. 29-39. Paulsen, The Evolution of the Educa- 
tional Ideal, in The Forum, XXIII, pp. 598-608; 672-685. *Quick, 
Educational Reformers, chaps, iv, xi. Ravelet, Blessed, J. B. La Salle. 
Russell, German Secondary Schools, pp. 36-41; 50-5&; 137-141. Sante- 
Beuve, Port Royal (5 vols.) *Schwickerath, Jesuit Education, chaps, 
iv-vi. Ward, The Counter Reformation, pp. 39-40; 123-125. 



IX. The Realists, or the Early Scientific Tendency. 



(1) The General Characteristics of Realism in Education Were: — 

1. A general emphasis on content of studies for their bearing on life, 
rather than on method of studies for the discipline which they 
afforded. 

2. The consideration of education as a social process. 

3. A consideration of social and natural phenomena along with lingu- 
istic and literary material. 

4. In general these innovators objected to the service of education 
and life. 



34 History and Principles of Education 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 442-443 : Brief Course, pp. 215-216. 
*Adamson, Pioneers of Modern Education, chaps, i, xiv. Barnard, 
German Teachers and Educators, pp. 335-343. *Laurie, Educational 
Opinion since the Renaissance, chap. x. Laurie, *John Amos Comen- 
ius, intro. Quick, Educational Reformers, pp. 104-5. 

(II) Humanism, or Verbal Realism, was the essential educational form 
which the movement took. 

1. Verbal realism was the term given by the early German historians 
of education to that view of education advocated during the 
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by those educators who ob- 
jected to the narrow humanistic view. 

2. School men and educational writers held the classics should be 
studied for their content and for its bearing on life. 

3. Some of them held that this content should be elucidated by some 
examination of social and natural phenomena. 

4. These humanistic realists but continued the better traditions of 
the early, broad, humanistic educators. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 443-445. Barnard, German Teachers 
and Educators, pp. 267-273. *Quick, Educational Reformers, chaps, i, ii. 

5. Erasmus represented this view in many of his educational writings, 
as did many of the broader humanists in the later period. 

Sources : Erasmus, On the Right Method of Study (in Woodward, Eras- 
mus, pp. 161-179.) 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 445-446. ^Woodward, Erasmus Con- 
cerning Education, pp. 51-86. 

6. Rabelais was the best representative of this view and was the 
leader of the later Renaissance in France. Rabelais in some points 
even advocated the study of such natural and social phenomena 
direct, though only after the previous mastery of literature. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 446-448 : Brief Course, pp. 

Barnard, Rabelais and his Educational Ideal, in American Journal of 
Education, XIV, pp. 147-158. Besant, Walter, Rabelais ("Foreign 
Classics Series"). Besant, Readings in Rabelais. Browning, Oscar, 
History of Educational Theories, pp. 80-91. Compayre, History of 
Pedagogy, pp. 91-100. *Laurie, History of Educational Opinion from 
the Reformation, chap. vi. *Munroe, The Educational Ideal, chap. ii. 
*Quick, Educational Reformers, chap. v. Street, A. E., The Educa- 
tion of Gargantua; in Critical Sketches. Tilley, The Literature of the 
French Renaissance, I, chap. x. 

7. John Milton was the best English representative of this view. 
Sources : Milton, Tractate of Education. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 448-451: Brief Course, pp. 219-220. 
Barnard, American Journal of Education, II, pp. 76-85. Barnard, 
English Pedagogy, pp. 178-190. Brooks, Phillips, Essays and Ad- 



The Realists, or the Early Scientific Tendency 35 

dresses (Milton as an Educator.) *Browning, Oscar, Milton's Trac- 
tate of Education, (Cambridge, 1895.) Browning, Educational Theo- 
ries, pp. 104-117. Laurie, Essays and Addresses, chap ix. *Laurie, 
History of Educational Opinion from the Renaissance, chap. xii. 
Masson, David, The Life of Milton, III, pp. 186-255. *Morris, Milton's 
Tractate of Education, intro. Quick, Educational Reformers, pp. 
212-218. 

(III) Social Realism. This view regarded education as a direct practical 
perparation for the opportunities and duties of life. 

1. This view was advocated and followed by most of the members of 
the upper classes in society. 

2. Schools were less esteemed than tutorial instruction in the family. 

3. The literary and linguistic elements of the traditional education 
were subordinated. 

4. The modern languages formed one important element and were 
studied for practical use. 

5. Travel was the favorite method of completing this preparation. 

6. Montaigne was the best representative though there were many 
others among all the chief people of Europe. 

7. This view was influential from the time of the Renaissance to the 
19th century. 

Sources : Brathwaite, The English Gentleman. Brathwaite, The English 
Gentlewoman. Castiglioni, The Courtier. Chesterfield's Letters. De- 
foe, The Compleat Gentleman. Elyot, The Gouvenour. Montaigne, 
Essays, especially On Pedantry and On the Education of Children. 
Peacham, The Compleat Gentleman. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 451-461 : Brief Course, pp. 220-226. 
*Adamson, Pioneers of Modern Education, chap. x. Barnard, Ameri- 
can Journal of Education, IV, pp. 461-478. Browning, History of Ed- 
ucational Theories, pp. 91-98. Compayre, History of Pedagogy, pp. 
100-110. Hazlitt, The Works of Montaigne, Introduction. Humanistic 
Realism, pp. 433-480. Laurie, Educational Opinion since the Renais- 
sance, chaps, v, ix. Laurie, Teachers' Guild Addresses, Montaigne, 
(London, 1892.) Montaigne, Essays, bk. I, chaps, xxiv, xxv; bk. II, 
chap. viii. Munroe, The Educational Ideal, chap. v. Owen, Skeptics of 
the French Renaissance, chaps, i, vi. Quick, Educational Reformers, 
pp. 70-79, 197-210. *Woodward, Education during the Renaissance, 
chaps, xii, xiii. 

(IV) Sense Realism was the early stage of the scientific tendency in 
education. Its general characteristics were : — 

1. An attempt to base educational theory upon philosophical and 
and scientific principles rather than on mere tradition. 

2. The primary philosophical principle was that knowledge came pri- 
marily through the senses; though this principle was not clearly 
seen by many of the educators. 



36 History and Principles of Education 

3. An emphasis upon the study of natural phenomena and on the im- 
portance of the natural sciences. 

4. An undervaluation of the traditional linguistic and literary course 
of study. 

5. An attempt to apply the inductive method to school work. 

6. The attempt at forming a general system of educational theory as 
well as a general method. 

7. A general introduction of the vernacular and of vernacular studies 
into the schoolroom. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 461-465 : Brief Course, pp. 226-230. 
*Adamson, Pioneers of Modern Education, chap. i. Barnard, German 
Teachers and Educators, pp. 335-343. Laurie, Educational Opinion 
since the Renaissance, chaps, x, xi. *Laurie, John Amos Comenius, 
intro. Quick, Educational Reformers, pp. 103-104. 

8. Richard Mulcaster (1548-1611) was one of the earliest, though 
only a partial representative of these views. He had hardly a 
glimpse of these fundamental aspects of the scientific tendency yet 
in his practical views w r ent beyond the verbal and sense realists, 
many of whose views he incorporated in his own. 

Sources: Mulcaster, Positions. (Modern edition by Quick). The Ele- 
ment arie. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 465-467. Brief Course, pp. 230. 
Barnard, American Journal of Education, XXIV, pp. 179-184. Bar- 
nard, English Pedagogy, Second Series, pp. 177-324. Hazlitt, Schools, 
School-Books and Schoolmasters, chap. xv. *01iphant, The Educa- 
tional Writings of Richard Mulcaster. Quick, Mulcaster's Posi- 
tions (Reprint of ed. of 1561.) *Quick, Educational Reformers, chap, 
viii. Watson, Foster, Richard Mulcaster and his Elementarie, in his 
Mulcaster and Ascham. 

9. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was the most important of these, in 
his general views and in his general influence. He influenced edu- 
cation in 

a. Formulating a new purpose in education, that of effecting life 

immediately for the better. 

b. Introducing a new subject matter, that of the natural sciences. 

c. Introducing a new method of organization into text books 

and of study into the schools, — the inductive method. 

Sources : Bacon, The Advancement of Learning. Novum Organum. The 
New Atlantis (esp. the last few sections.) 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 468-478: Brief Course, 235-238. 
*Adamson, Pioneers of Modern Education, chap. iii. Barnard, Ameri- 
can Journal of Education, V, pp. 663-681. Barnard, English Pedagogy, 
pp. 77-79. Barnard, German Teachers and Educators, pp. 273-290. 
Beard, The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century in its Relation to 
Modern Thought and Knowledge, chap. xi. Caird, University Ad- 



The Realists, or the Early Scientific Tendency 37 

dresses, pp. 124-156. Fowler, Bacon's Novum Organum, pp. 1-145. 
*Laurie, History of Educational Opinion since the Renaissance, chap. 
x. Munroe, The Educational Ideal, chap. iii. Nichol, Francis Bacon, 
his Life and Philosophy, II, pt. 2, chaps, xxiii. 

10. Wolfgang Ratke (1571-1635), was the first to attempt in a practical 
way to introduce the new ideas into the school room. 

a. He claimed to be able to reform all subjects and to enor- 

mously abbreviate the time and labor required to master the 
languages. 

b. This he would do through general education method of in- 

ductive character. 

c. He would also introduce the study of natural phenomena. 

d. His eccentric character and visionary ideas caused his complete 

failure in a practical way, though his ideas bore fruit. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 478-480: Brief Course, p. 238. 
Adamson, Pioneers of Modern Education, pp. 31-46. Barnard, Amer- 
ican Journal of Education, V, pp. 229-256. Barnard, The Progressives 
of the Seventeenth Century; in Barnard, American Journal of Educa- 
tion, VI, pp. 459-466. *Barnard, German Teachers and Educators, 
PP- 343-370- Browning, O., Educational Theories, pp. 63-67. *Quick, 
Educational Reformers, chap. ix. 

11. John Amos Comenius (1592-1670) was the great educational re- 
former representing the early scientific tendency. 

a. He united the religious, the humanistic, and the realistic 

tendencies. 

b. He reduced the essential ideas of the realistic tendency to 

practical school-room bases. 

c. He wrote a series of texts for all grades of school, books em- 

bodying these principles and applying them to the study of the 
Latin language. 

d. He wrote a general systematic treatise on education contain- 

ing most of the principles of modern education, though in a 
crude form. 

e. He was a practical school man and did much towards better- 

ing the educational condition of his times. 

Sources: Comenius, Great Didactic (translated by Keatinge). The School 
of Infancy (trans, by W. S. Monroe). The Orbis Pictus (various Eng. 
editions.) The V estibulum and Janua linguarum (various editions.) 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 480-496. Brief Course, pp. 238-248. 
Adamson, Pioneers of Modern Education, chaps, iii, iv, v, vi. Barnard, 
John Amos Comenius (Raumer) Barnard's Journal, V, pp. 257-298. 
Barnard, German Teachers and Educators, pp. 381-395. Browning, 
Oscar, Educational Theories, pp. 67-80. Butler, The Place of Come- 
nius in the History of Education, in Proceedings of the National Edu- 
cational Association, 1892, pp. 723-728. Compayre, History of Peda- 
gogy, PP- 122-137. Davidson, History of Education, pp. 190-208. 



38 History and Principles of Education 

Harms, The Permanent Influence of Comenius, in Educational Review, 
III, pp. 226-236, also in "Educational Aims and Values," pp. 193-21 1. 
Kayser, Johann Amos Comenius; sein Leben und seine Werke, pp. 
1 -148. Keatinge, The Great Didactic, intro. *Laurie, John Amos 
Comenius, intro. and pts. Ill and IV. Laurie, Teachers Guild Ad- 
dresses, chap. vi. Laurie, The Place of Comenius in the History of 
Education, in Educational Review, III, pp. 211-233. Laurie, History of 
Educational Opinion from the Renaissance, chap. ii. *Monroe, W. S., 
Comenius and the Beginnings of Educational Reform, chaps, i-ix. 
Munroe, J. P., The Educational Ideal, chap. vi. *Quick, Essays on 
Educational Reformers, chap. x. 

12. Sense Realism in the Schools. 

a. These views found their most general expression in the 

scientific academies. 

b. The universities responded slowly to these new ideas first 

in Germany, with founding of Halle (1692) and Gottingen 
(1737). 

c. The real school in Germany (first in 1747) and the academies 

in England and America — represented the first partial intro- 
duction of these ideas. 

d. Little impression was made on elementary education except 

through the introduction of text which attempted to apply the 
inductive method. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 496-502. Monroe, Brief Course, pp. 
248-253. Adamson, Pioneers of Modern Education, chaps, viii and x. 
Encyclopedia articles on Academies. *Heubaum, Geschichte des Deut- 
schen Bildungswesen scit der Mitte des i/ten Jahr Hundert, vol. I. 
*Barnard, German Teachers and Educators, pp. 302-317. 



X. The Modern Disciplinary Conception of Education. 

(I) Occasion for its Formation in the Seventeenth Century. 

1. The immediate social value of the narrow humanistic education 
was greatly lessened if not destroyed by the 

a. Growth of the vernacular literature, 

b. Use of French instead of Latin as language of international 
communication, 

c. By use of vernacular, in courts, church, universities and schools. 

2. The perfection of method and of organization of the narrow 
humanistic education furnished a strong reason for its continuation. 

3. The success of the best humanistic schools, especially of the Jesuits', 
was undoubted. 

4. The traditionalism of the school and the conservatism of school- 
men tended to preserve that which was successful and dominant. 



The Modern Disciplinary Conception of Education 39 

5. Hence a new theory to support the current practice, now without 
practical social justification. 

6. The current religious, philosophical, psychological and even socio- 
logical view coincided with the thories underlying the disciplinary 
conception. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 505-507 : Brief Course, pp. 254- 

(II) The Essentials of the Theory Underlying the Disciplinary 
Conception. 

1. It is the process of learning rather than the thing learned that is 
of value in education. 

2. Certain particular intellectual activities or experiences produce a 
general power, that is available in all future experiences, however 
dissimilar and remote. 

3. These two essential principles were re-enforced by the general 
view of the human nature : 

a. That it had to be worked over from without through difficult 
and distasteful experiences, 

b. By Locke's view of the importance of reflection (the perception 
of the intellect) as a source of knowledge. 

c. By the religious view concerning the depravity of human nature 
and the necessity of "breaking the will" as an essential part of 
education. 

d. By the general psychological and social view of the child as a 
miniature adult. 

Sources: Locke, Thoughts on Education; Conduct of the Understanding. 
Malebranche, Concerning the Search after Truth, Preface, pt. 2, bk. 6, 
chap. iv. pt. I, bk. Ill, chap, xi; (pt. I, bk. 2, chap, viii;) Hamilton, 
Discussions on Philosophy and Literature, pp. 257-345. Knox, The 
Liberal Education, intro. and pp. 126-140. Whewell, Of a Liberal 
Education. Young. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 307-712: Brief Course, pp. 255-259. 
Bain, Education as a Science, pp. 139-145. *Bennett, Formal Discipline. 
Farrar, Essays on a Liberal Education, pp. 1 13-143, 181-204. Fouillee, 
Education from a National Standpoint, pp. 129-130. *Hinsdale, The 
Dogma of Formal Discipline, Educational Review, VIII, p. 128. Mill, 
Inaugural Address, pp. 15-16. O'Shea, Education as Adjustment, pp. 
69-73. *Thorndike, Educational Psychology, chap. viii. *Wendell, 
Our National Superstition, North American Reviezv, CLXXIX, p. 
388. Youmans, Culture Demanded by Modern Life, chap. i. 

(III) John Locke was one of the earliest, and sanest representatives of 
the theory of education. 

1. He applied it to physical, social and moral education as well as to 
the intellectual. 



40 History and Principles of Education 

2. His treatment of the disciplinary education of the intellect is found 
in his Conduct of the Understanding. 

3. It is based largely upon the thought that unorganized experience 
furnishes us with sense perceptions, but that our more complex 
ideas come from reflection upon this material. 

4. Development of this power of reflection comes from a discipline 
of this "perception of the intellect." 

Sources : Locke, Thoughts on Education ; Conduct of the Understanding; 
Essay concerning Human Understanding. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 312-323 : Brief Course, pp. 261-266. 
Barnard, English Pedagogy, pp. 209-222, 223-342. Barnard, German 
Teachers and Educators, pp. 428-440. Barnard, Locke's Thoughts on 
Education, in American Journal of Education, VI, pp. 210-220, XI, pp. 
460-484. *Bennett, Formal Discipline. Bourne, The Life of John 
Locke, vols. II, pp. 253-269. Browning, Introduction to Educational 
Theories, chap. vii. Compayre, History of Pedagogy, pp. 194-21 1. 
Davidson, History of Education, pp. 200-209. Fowler, T., John Locke, 
("English Men of Letters") chaps, i-x. Fraser, Locke, pt. I. Gill, 
Systems of Education, pp. 19-38. *Laurie, Educational Opinion from 
the Renaissance, chaps, xiii, xiv, xv. Leitch, James, Practical Educa- 
tionalists and their Systems, pp. 1-51. Mark, History of Educational 
Theories in England. Munroe, The Educational Ideal, pp. 95-123. 
Quick, Essays on Educational Reformers, chap. xiii. *Quick, Locke's 
Thoughts on Education, pp. 19-59. Thorndike, Educational Psychol- 
ogy, chap. viii. 

(IV) Disciplinary Education in the Schools. 

1. This theory is the most prominent influence in the control of school 
work from the seventeenth century to the middle of the nineteenth. 

2. The Universities of England and the Colleges of America based 
their work on this theory. 

3. So also did the secondary schools — the Latin grammar schools, 
and to a certain extent the academies of England and America and 
later even the high schools of the United States, the German Gym- 
nasia and higher classical schools were so controlled. 

4. The dominance of the formal studies, especially grammar and 
arithmetic, in the elementary schools, was based on the same theory. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 523-530 : Brief Course, pp. 266-270. 
Arnold, T., Essay on Discipline of Public Schools. Arnold, T., Es- 
says on Rugby School — Use of Classics in Miscellaneous Works. 
Carlyle, Endowed Schools, Rules and Regulations. Collins, The Public 
Schools, pp. 91-95. Tarver, Observations of a Foster Parent, pp. 74-85. 
Russell, German Higher Schools, pp. 73-74, 161-171. 



The Naturalistic Tendency in Education 41 

XI. The Naturalistic Tendency in Education. 



(I) The Enlightenment Was the Movement of Thought in the Early 
Eighteenth Century. Its characteristics were: — 

1. A rationalistic interpretation of life and its interests. 

2. A cultivation of intellectual and literary interests. 

3. An extremely critical attitude towards current religious beliefs. 

4. A hostile attitude towards the absolutism of both political and 
ecclesiastical hierarchy. 

5. An aristocratic attitude towards all social problems. 

(II) The Naturalistic Movement though often identified with and in- 
cluded in the enlightment, may be distinguished from it in the follow- 
ing particulars : — 

1. An interpretation of life in terms of feeling and emotion. 

2. A romantic tendency in literature. 

3. A tendency to the formation of a positive naturalistic religion. 

4. A revolutionary attitude towards institutions, church, state, and 
society, then quite arbitrary and repressive in character. 

5. An extreme democratic movement in thought and later in action. 

References for (i) and (ii) : — (See also those under (IV), Monroe, 
Text Book, pp. S33-547 : Brief Course, pp. 273-277. Brunetiere, History 
of French Literature, pp. 281-370. Erdmann, History of Philosophy, I. 
Falckenberg, R., History of Modem Philosophy, pp. 241-245, chap. viii. 
Flint, History of the Philosophy of History in France, chaps, iii, iv. 
Francke, German Literature as determined by Social Forces, chaps, vi, 
vii, viii. Hegel, Philosophy of History, Sec. Ill, chap. iii. Hillebrand, 
German Thought, Lectures II and III. Hoffding, H., History of Mod- 
ern Philosophy, bk. V. Hudson, Rousseau and Naturalism in Life and 
Thought. Levy-Bruhl, History of Modern Philosophy in France, 
chaps, v-x. Macdonald, F., Studies in the France of Voltaire and 
Rousseau, chaps, i, ii, vi, vii. Paulsen, Fr., The Evolution of the Edu- 
cational Ideal, in The Forum, XXIII, pp. 598-608, 672-685. Russell, 
German Higher Schools, pp. 61-75. Scherer, History of German Lit- 
erature, vol. II, pp. 114-141. Schlosser, F. C, History of the Eight- 
eenth Century, bk. I, chap, ii, Sec. I, chap, iii, Sec. V. Lowell, Eve of 
the French Revolution, chaps, xvi-xix. 

(III) Jean Jacques Rousseau was the great influential representative of 
this movement. 

1. Around his teachings crystalized the work of all the naturalists. 

2. He himself did not originate many of these ideals, but gave them a 
literary and emotional form which aroused the masses. 

3. His life and character are important in explaining the emotional- 
istic nature of his doctrines and writings. 



42 History and Principles of Education 

4. Hostility to his character and his exaggerated statement should not 
blind one to the truths or principles for which he stood. 

Sources : Rousseau, Confessions. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 547-550 : Brief Course, pp. 280-282. 
Jean Jacques Rousseau. Barnard, American Journal of Educa- 
tion, V, pp. 459-486. Barnard, German Teachers and Educators, 
pp. 459-463. Caird, Rousseau, in Essays on Literature and Philosophy, 
chap. i. Carlyle, The Hero in Literature, in Heroes and Hero-Wor- 
ship. Craddock, Rousseau as Described by Himself and Others. 
Clarke, Jean Jacques Rousseau, in Memorial and Biographical 
Sketches, pp. 343-381. ^Davidson, Rousseau and Education according 
to Nature, chaps, ii, iii, iv. *Hudson, Rousseau and Naturalism in- 
Life and Thought, pt. I. Maedonald, F., Studies in the France of Vol- 
taire and Rousseau, chap. ii. *Morley, John, Rousseau, I, chaps, ii, iii, 
II, chaps, i, iii, vi, vii. Quick, Essays on Educational Reformers, chap, 
xiv. 

(IV) Rousseau's Doctrine of the Natural State implied — 

1. That the state of culture of primitive man or earliest civilization 
was far more conducive to the development of character than 
higher stages of civilization. 

a. Consequently that institutions such as the absolute state, pri- 

vate property, the hierarchical church were harmful and de- 
prived the individual of his liberty. 

b. That the sciences and arts (literature) were developed in 

these high civilized states to conceal this loss of liberty and 
departure from pristine virtue and morality. 

2. That the emotions were a safer guide to action than reason and 
that the instructive or impulsive tendencies to action were far 
better and far truer than those modified by deliberation. 

3. That a life in contact with natural forces and phenomena was far 
more satisfactory and far higher than one influenced and con- 
trolled by the conventions of society. 

Sources : Rousseau, A Dissertation on the Origin and Foundation of In- 
equality in Mankind. (Translated in any edition of Rousseau's works.) 
Rousseau, A Dissertation on the Effects of Cultivating the Arts and 
Sciences. Rousseau, The Social Contract, chap. i. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 550-557 : Brief Course, 282-284. 
Bosanquet, Philosophical Theory of the State, pp. 79-88. *Davidson, 
Rousseau, pt. I. *Hudson, Rousseau and Naturalism in Life and 
Thought, chap. vi. Levy-Bruhl, History of Modern Philosophy in 
France, chap. viii. *Macdonald, Studies in the France of Voltaire and 
Rousseau. *Morley, Rousseau, I, chap. v. *Payne, Rousseau's Entile, 
intro. 

(V) Rousseau's Educational Doctrines were the direct outgrowth of his 
doctrine of the natural state. He held — 



The Naturalistic Tendency in Education 43 

i. That education should be negative, that education should be a 
natural growth, and that artificial educative efforts of man should 
not seek to repress this natural growth for the sake of conformity 
to traditional ways of thinking and doing. 

2. That the natural interests of the child should control the educative 
process, and that the old disciplinary idea of the value of effort on 
disagreeable and difficult tasks was erroneous. 

3. That education as a natural development was a vital process, last- 
ing some sense throughout life and independent of the school 
though often hampered by it. 

4. Consequently that the entire educational process should be simpli- 
fied by removal of much of the paraphernalia of the school. 

5. That the child was the positive factor in this process and the 
teacher only a guide or assistant. 

6. He thus lays the foundation for the 19th century educational de- 
velopment 

Sources : Rousseau, Emile, Rousseau, Letters. Salzmann, Conrad Kiefer. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 553-575 : Brief Course, pp. 284-291. 
Barnard, German Teachers and Educators, pp. 463-484. Barnard, 
American Journal of Education, V, pp. 463-484. Browning, Introduc- 
tion to Educational Theories. Compayre, History of Pedagogy, chap, 
xiii. Compayre, Rousseau et I'Education de la Nature, chaps, ii-iv. 
Davidson, Rousseau, chaps, v-x. Goldsmith, Essay on Education, 
in Barnard, American Journal of Education, XIII, pp. 347-353. *Hud- 
son, Rousseau and Naturalism in Life and Thought, chap. ix. Lang, 

0. L., Rousseau and his Emile, (N. Y., 1893.) *Morley, J., Rousseau, 
II, chap. iv. *Munroe, The Educational Ideal, chap. vii. *Payne, 
Rousseau's Emile, intro. Payne, Education according to Nature, in 
Proceeding of the National Educational Association, 1895, PP- 1 14-125. 
Quick, Educational Reformers, chap. xiv. Wier, S., A Key to Rous- 
seau's Emile, in Educational Review, V, pp. 278-290. 

(VI) Educational Influence of Rousseau. 

1. Was first on social action and reorganization at large. 

2. On the new educational thought, as seen in Kant, Pestalozzi, 
Richter, Froebel. 

3. The immediate practical influence in France was slight because of 
the Revolution and the Napoleonic reaction. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 572-579: Brief Course, pp. 291-301. 
Arnold, M., Popular Education in France, chap. iv. Azarias, Essays 
Educational, pp. 245-260. Barnard, American Journal of Education, 
XX, pp. 228-229. Barnard, German Teachers and Educators, pp. 457- 
491. *Compayre, History of Pedagogy, chaps, xiv-xvii. Davidson, 
*Rousseau, chap. xi. Payne, Lectures on the History of Education, 
pp. 89-91. Quick, Educational Reformers, chap. xv. Schlosser, History 
of the Eighteenth Century, vol. II, chap. ii. 



44 History and Principles of Education 

4. In Germany the concrete realization of his educational ideas was 
attempted. 

a. Basedow in the Philanthropinist schools made such attempts. 

b. Salzmann, Campe, etc., influenced school work through their 
educational writings and their literature for the young. 

Sources : Basedow, Methoden Buck, Elementary Work, etc. Campe, The- 
orophon. Salzmann, Cowad Kiefer. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 575-583: Brief Course, pp. 297-300. 
Barnard, American Journal of Education, V, pp. 487-520. Barnard, 
German Teachers and Educators, pp. 487-520. Lang, Basedow's Life 
and Educational Reform Work. Payne, Lectures on the History of 
Education, Works, II, pp. 91-96. Quick, Educational Reformers, chap, 
xv. 



XII. The Psychological Tendency in Education. 

(I) The Most Important Principles of the Psychological Tendency 
are as follows : — 

1. Education is a development, an organic growth. 

2. This development may be hindered or assisted by the methods in 
which the natural tendencies to action are treated. 

3. Education is therefore not an artificial process — one controlled by 
externals, by which we come into possession of forms of language, 
conduct, etc. This old type of education is to be destroyed. 

4. All school work should be based upon instruction,, and should start 
from the interests and activities of the child. 

5. Principles controlling education are to be drawn from a knowledge 
of the nature and development of the child's mind. 

6. There developed a much more accurate and detailed knowledge of 
the nature and development of the mind, which gradually contrib- 
uted to a method of instruction. 

7. There resulted a much greater attention to and emphasis upon 
method in education. 

8. As a consequence, elementary education received an attention 
hitherto unknown and much of the modern theory of education 
was formulated from experience in this field alone. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 587-594: Brief Course, pp. 303-307. 
Davidson, History of Education, pp. 220-230. Hall, Pedagogical Re- 
formers in Pedagogical Seminary, I, pp. 1-12. Quick, Educational Re- 
formers, pp. 522-526. 

(II) The Broader Philosophical Aspect of the Psychological Move- 
ment by German philosophers, Notably Kant and Fichte. 



The Psychological Tendency in Education 45 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 594-597: Brief Course, pp. 306. 
Adamson, Fichte, pp. 84-92. Barnard, German Teachers and Edu- 
cators, chap. vi. Browning, Educational Theories, pp. 186-195. 
*Buchner, Educational Theory of Immanuel Kant. *Churton, Kant on 
Education. Compayre, History of Pedagogy, chap. xiv. *Davidson, 
History of Education, pp. 220-229. Duproix, Paul, Kant et Fichte et 
la Probleme de I'Education, pt. 2. Francke, History of German Liter- 
ature, pp. 434-444. de Guimps, Pestalozzi; His Aim and Work, pp. 161- 
166. Mclntrye, Kant's Theory of Education, Educational Review, xvi, 
PP- 3i3-3 2 7- Rosenkranz, Philosophy of Education. Smith, Fichte's 
Popular Works, I, pp. 128-130. 

(Ill) Pestalozzi Was the Great Practical Reformer around whose 
work centred the efforts for introducing these new ideas into school 
work. 

1. Pestalozzi's life experiences reveal the growth of his educational 
principles as well as their introduction into practice through a host 
of co-workers and followers. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 597-604: Brief Course, pp. 309-312. 
Barnard, Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism, pp. 41-115. Banrard, Amer- 
ican Journal of Education, IV, pp. 65-115, 343-358; VII, pp. 703-720. 
Bradley, Pestalozzi, the Teacher of Children, in Education, XI, pp. 352- 
359> 4 2 3 - 4 2 9- Browning, Educational Theories, pp. 170-180. *Krusi, 
H. Pestalozzi, His Life, Work and Iniluence, pp. 13-60. Compayre, 
History of Pedagogy, pp. 417-127, 433-438. de Guimps, Pestalozzi, His 
Aim and Works, chaps, i-xvii. Hailmann, W. M., History of Peda- 
gogy, Lect. IX. Hamilton, C. J., Henri Pestalozzi, in Educational Re- 
view, III, pp. 173-184. Pinloche, Pestalozzi and the Foundation of the 
Modem Elementary School, Pt. I. Munroe, Educational Ideal, pp. 
179-187. 

2. Pestalozzi's theories related to every aspect of education. 

a. As to purpose, education was to become the chief means to 

social reform and betterment. 

b. This was to be accomplished through universal education. 

c. The new meaning of education made this education of the 

masses possible, for it to be but the "natural development of 
inherent powers or capacities." 

d. Educational means became revolutionized by this new mean- 

ing for 

(1) The immediate environment or immediate experience 
furnished the subject matter of geography, arithmetic and 
other subjects, 

(2) The ordinary vocations gave an opportunity for instruc- 
tion, 

(3) The home became the primary and most important edu- 
cational instruction. 



46 History and Principles of Education 

e. These new means as well as the new meaning called for an 
entirely new method; the method of object teaching based 
upon a training of the sense perceptions for the purpose of 
forming clear ideas. 

Sources : Pestalozzi, Leonard and Gertrude (various editions.) How 
Gertrude Teaches her Children. Letters on Early Education. Even- 
ing Hours with a Hermit. (This with extended selections for other 
works in Barnard, Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism.) 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 608-620 : Brief Course, pp. 312-318. 
Barnard, American Journal of Education, V, pp. 351-353, 355-358; 
XXXI, pp. 49-68; IV, pp. 65-126. Barnard, Pestalozzi and Pestaloz- 
zianism. Browning, O., Educational Theories, pp. 180-185. Compayre, 
History of Pedagogy, pp. 428-455. *de Guimps, Pestalozzi, his Aim and 
Work, chaps, vi, vii, xii, xxi, etc. Hailmann, History of Pedagogy, 
Lect. X. *Krtisi, The General Means of Education, in American Jour- 
nal of Education, V, pp. 187-197. *Kriisi, Pestalozzi, His Life, Work 
and Influence, pp. 151-168. Munroe, The Educational Ideal, pp. 182- 
194. Payne, Jos., Lectures on the History of Education, Works, II, 
pp. 97-114. *Pinloche, Pestalozzi and the Modern Elementary School, 
pp. 125-255. *Quick, Educational Reformers, pp. 354-383. 



(IV) Herbart. The most philosophical of these educational psychologists 
and the only one who worked out a system of psychology as a basis 
of his educational theories. 

Sources: Herbart, Outlines of Pedagogical Doctrine (by Lange and De- 
Garmo). Applications of Psychology to the Science of Education 
(Mulliner). Herbart, Text Book in Psychology (translated by Smith). 
Herbart, A. B. C. of Sense-Perception, etc. (by Eckoff.) Herbart, 
Science of Education (by Felkin). 

1. His life was that of a German university professor though his 
theories grew out of previous tutorial experiences as well as of 
observation and reflection. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 624-625 : Brief Course, p. 320. 
Bartholomai, Herbart's Pddagogische Schriften, I, pp. 3-109. *De- 
Garmo, Herbart and the Herbartians, pt. I, chap. ii. *Felkin, Her- 
bart's Science of Education, pp. 1-24. *Van Liew, Life of Herbart. 

2. Herbart's important contribution to education consists 

a. In the foundation of a psychology, the product at once of ex- 
perimentation and introspection which he applied to the pro- 
cess of teaching. While most of his theories have had to be 
revised and some rejected, he at least began the tendency 
which has contributed so much to education. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 625-628: Brief Course, pp. 320-322. 
*Adams, Herbartian Psychology as applied to Education, chap. iii. 
*Cole, Herbart and Froebel, a Synthesis. DeGarmo, Herbart and the 
Herbartians. Encyclopedia Britannica, art. "Herbart." *Felkin, In- 
troduction to Herbart's Science and Practice of Education, chap. i. 
Felkin, Herbart's Science of Education, pp. 24-44. Herbart, Text Book 



The Psychological Tendency in Education 47 

in Psychology. Herbart, Application of Psychology to the Science of 
Education. Lange, Apperception. Lange and DeGarmo, Herbart's 
Outlines of Educational Doctrine, pp. 15-29- *Ufer, Introduction to the 
Pedagogy of Herbart. 

b. In differentiation between instruction and education and mak- 

ing clear the aim of the two. 

(1) The aim in education is found in the five great elements 
which enter into character. 

(2) The aim of instruction is to make ideas influence or de- 
termine conduct. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 628-635 : Brief Course, pp. 322-326. 
*DeGarmo, Herbart and the Herbartians, pt. I, chap, iv, vii. *Felkin, 
Introduction to Herbart's Science and Practice of Education, chaps, ii, 
iv. *Lange and DeGarmo, Apperception, pp. 7-15 ; pt. II, Sec. 2, 3. 

c. The doctrine of interest was elaborated to indicate how in- 

struction could be made educative; by having it grow out of 
previous experience and lead into future activity. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 632-635 : Brief Course, pp. 325. 
*Adams, Herbartian Psychology as applied to Education, chap. x. 
*DeGarmo, Herbart and the Herbartians, pt. I, chap. v. *Lange and 
DeGarmo, Apperception, pt. II, Sec. 2. *Ufer, Introduction to Peda- 
gogy of Herbart. 

d. The correlation of studies follows as a necessity, since they 

represent life and must follow the same unity within them- 
selves and with the child. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 635-636 : Brief Course, pp. 326. 
Ames, An Imperfect Correlation, in Educational Review, X, p. 182. 
Darroch, Herbart and the Herbartian Theory of Education, Lect. V. 
*DeGarmo, Coordination of Studies, in Educational Review, IV, pp. 
422-437; V, pp. 451-466; IX, pp. 464-471; X, pp. 364-383; XI, pp. 313- 
322, and pp. 323-334. *DeGarmo, Herbart and the Herbartians, pts. 
II, III. Harris, Psychologic Foundations of Education, chap, xxxvi. 
*Herbart Society Year Books, vol. I, II. Lange and DeGarmo, Her- 
bart's Outlines of Educational Doctrine, pars. 65, 219. McMurry, F. 
M., Concentration, in Educational Review, IX, p. 27. *McMurry, C, 
General Method, chap. iv. Parker, Talks on Pedagogics, an Outline of 
the Theory of Concentration. Rein, Outlines of Pedagogics, pp. 101- 
116. ^Report of the Committee of Fifteen on Elementary Education. 
Ufer, Introduction to the Pedagogy of Herbart, pp. 67-81. 

e. A general method of instruction was first formulated by Her- 

bart on a psychological basis. With him the teaching process 
is clearly determined by the mind process. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 636-639. *DeGarmo, Herbart and 
the Herbartians, pt. I, chap. 6. *Felkin, Introduction to Herbart's Sci- 
ence and Practice of Education, chap. iii. *Herbart Year Book, I, II. 
*Lange, Apperception. Lange, Outline of Herbart's Pedagogics, pt. II. 
*McMurry, General Method. Ufer, Introduction to Pedagogy of 
Herbart. 



48 History and Principles of Education 

(V) The Froebelian Movement. Froebel first applied the revo- 
lutionary philosophical and scientific ideas of the 19th century, 
especially the theory of evolution, to education. While his 
writings are mystical and unscientific in character and difficult 
of interpretation they have been suggestive of most of the 
fruitful ideas in present educational thought. 

Sources: Froebel's Works (in English) Songs and Music of Froebel' s 
Mother Play (Blow). Autobiography (Michaehs and Moore). Edu- 
cation of Man (Hailmann). Education by Development (Jarvis). 
Letters (Heinemann). Letters on the Kindergarten (Poesche). 
Mother Songs, Games and Stories (F. and E. Lord). Mottoes and 
Commentaries of the Mother Play (Eliot). Pedagogics of the Kinder- 
garten, 3 vols. (Jarvis). 

1. Froebel's Life was that of a teacher who worked out and tested 
his great ideas through practical experience. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 642-646: Brief Course, pp. 330-332. 
* Autobiography (Michaelis and Moore.) Blake, Life of Froebel (In 
Wiebe: Quarter Century Edition of the Paradise of Childhood.) 
Franks The Kindergarten System, its Origin and Development as 
Seen in the Life of Fr. Froebel. Kriege, Friedrich Froebel, a Bio- 
graphical Sketch. Letters (Heinemann and Poesche). *Marenholtz- 
Biilow Reminiscences of Friedrich Froebel. *Quick, Essays on Edu- 
cational Reformers, pp. 384-413- Page, Froebel, the Man and his Work. 
*Payne, froebel and the Kindergarten System. Shirreff, Short 5 ketch 
of the Life of Friedrich Froebel. Snider, The Life of Froebel. 

2. Froebel's Educational Doctrines are best studied in his own writ- 
ings and relates to every phase of the educational problem. In 
outline they are as follows : 

a. The law unity is the fundamental law of education. Unity 

in the mental and the social life of the child, unity in the 
teaching process, unity in the subject matter, unity in the out- 
come of teaching with life. 

b. Development is the process of education. It is a growth of 

vital forces through evolution, not a mechanical memorization 
of information or knowledge or an imitation of external forms. 

c. This development results from spontaneous activity of the 

whole organism or being. Thus self-activity becomes the 
method of the process. 

References : *Froebel Education of Man, Pedagogics of the Kindergar- 
ten Education by Development. Blow, Letters to a Mother on the 
Philosophy of Froebel. *Bowen, Froebel and Education by Self-Ac- 
tivity. *Cole, Herbart and Froebel, a Synthesis. Hailmann, From 
Pestalozzi to Froebel, Proceedings of National Educational Associa- 
tion 1880, pp. 128-137. *Hughes, Froebel's Educational Laws for All 
Teachers. Kraus-Boelte, Aim of the Kindergarten System. *Mae- 
Vannel Educational Theories of Herbart and Froebel. Marenholtz- 
Biilow,' The Child and Child-Nature, The Child, its Nature and Re- 
lations. Poullson, Love and Lazv in Child Training. SnelL Geomet- 
rical Instruction through Hand and Eye. Snider, Froebel's Mother 



The Psychological Tendency in Education 49 

Play Songs, a Commentary. Snider, Psychology of Froebel's Play- 
Gifts. Weaver, Paper and Scissors in the Schoolroom. Wiggin and 
Smith, The Republic of Childhood. White, Educational Ideas of 
Froebel. 

3. The Kindergarten was the practical concrete expression of Froe- 
bel's principles, although the first kindergarten was not established 
until 12 years after the publication of his systematic work on edu- 
cational theory. All of Froebel's activities and writings, subse- 
quent to 1837, were devoted to the elaboration of the kindergarten 
idea. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 665-667: Brief Course, pp. 341-342. 
*Froebel, Pedagogics of the Kindergarten. Education by Develop- 
ment. Allen, Kindergarten Progress in New York. Bailey, Hints on 
introducing the Kindergarten System into English Infant Schools. 
Barnard, Kindergarten and Child Culture. Barnard, Papers on Froe- 
bel's Kindergarten. *Blow, Kindergarten Education. Boone, Educa- 
tion In the United States. Brooks, Studies from the Kindergarten. 
Carpenter, Mother's and Kinder gar tn er 1 s Friend. Dongi, The Kinder- 
garten. Goldammer, The Kindergarten. Green, History in the Kin- 
dergarten. Gregory, Practical Suggestions for Kinder gar tners. Hail- 
mann, Four Lectures on early Child- culture, Kindergarten Culture in 
the Family and Kindergarten, Law of Childhood. Hanschmann, The 
Kindergarten System. Harris, Early History of the Kinder- 
garten in St. Louis. Harrison, Study of Child-Nature from the 
Kindergarten Standpoint. Heerwart, Kindergarten in relation to the 
various Industrial Products of a Country. Hoffman, Kindergarten 
Toys and how to use them. *Hughes, The Kindergarten, its place and 
purpose. *Kraus-Boelte and Kraus, Kindergarten Guide. London 
Froebel Society, Essays in the Kindergarten. *Mackenzie, Principles 
and Practice of Kindergarten. Mann & Peabody, Moral Culture of In- 
fancy. Mann & Peabody, Kindergarten Guide, Kindergarten Maga- 
zine. Mill, Kindergarten Educational Employment. Mortimer, Prac- 
tical Kindergarten Lessons. New York Kindergarten Association, 
Annual Reports. Page, The Kindergarten and the School. Payne, 
Visit to German Schools. Peabody, Education in the Home, the Kin- 
dergarten and the Primary School, Lectures in the Training Schools 
for Kinder gar tners. Pollock, National Kindergarten Manual. Riggs, 
The Kindergarten. Riggs and Smith, The Republic of Childhood. 
Robinson, Kindergarten Practice for the Use of Teachers. Ronge, 
Practical Guide to the English Kindergarten. Schaeffer, Cycle of 
Work in the Kindergarten and Primary School. Shirreff, Essays and 
Lectures on the Kindergarten, Home Education in Relation to the 
Kindergarten, Kindergarten at Home, The Kindergarten in Relation 
to Family Life, London Froebel Society's Essays. Smith, The Kin- 
dergarten in a Nutshell. Society for Ethical Culture, Reports of the 
Director and Principal of the Free Kindergarten, New York. Steele, 
Kindergarten Handbook for English Teachers. Stephens, Kindergar- 
ten Education. Stockham and Kellog, Mother's Portfolio. Struthers, 
Report on Sloyd and Kindergarten Occupations in the Elementary 
School. 

4. Froebel's practical influence was not confined to the kindergarten, 
but his ideas influenced all phases of elementary education, and 
are identical with the ideas now working to revolutionize all stages 
of education, higher as well as lower. 



50 History and Principles of Education 

a. The school becomes an institution where the child discovers 

his own individuality, reveals and works out his own person- 
ality, and develops his power of initiative and execution. 

b. Play and other spontaneous activities become important means 

to those ends. 

c. Handwork and mechanical and even industrial processes may 

be used effectively to similar ends. 

d. Nature study becomes important as a source of interest and 

experiences, and for the symbolic significance natural phe- 
nomena and processes possess. 

e. The influence of Froebel's theories in these respects is be- 

coming more and more pronounced in American schools. 

References: Monroe* Text Book, pp. 659-665, 671-673: Brief Course, pp. 
338-341, 346-348. *Cole, Herbart and Froebel. Hailmann, Primary 
Methods. Harris, Kindergarten Methods contrasted with the Methods 
of the American Primary School. *Hopkins, Spirit of the New Edu- 
cation, pp. 262-282. Klemm and Hughes, Progress of Education in the 
Nineteenth Century, chaps, i, xvi, xvii, xviii. MacVannel, The Phil- 
osophy of Froebel. Manning, What Froebel Did for Young Children, 
(London International Health Exhibition, V. 13). Meiklejohn, The 
New Education. Munroe, The Educational Ideal, pp. 200-206. Riggs, 
Children's Rights. Sewall, The Kindergarten in the Education of the 
Citizen. The Kindergarten and the School, by four active workers. 
The Kindergarten engrafted on the American Public School System. 
Wiggin and Smith, The Republic of Childhood. 

(VI) Influence of the Psychological Tendency on Schools. 

1. Of Pestalozzianism. Was primarily in the Teutonic countries 
where it formed the basis of educational reform of the early 19th 
century. England was affected through the infant school move- 
ment, America through this and later through the Horace Mann 
and the Oswego Movements. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 621-622, 667-670: Brief Course, 342- 
345. Barnard, Schools before Pestalozzi, American Journal of Educa- 
tion, V, pp. 343-345. Barnard, Pestalozzi and Pestalozziani>sm. Bar- 
nard, German Teachers and Educators, pp. 575-586; American Journal 
of Education, IV, pp. 343-358. *Davidson, T., History of Education, 
pp. 229-235. Hailmann, From Pestalozzi to Froebel, in Proceedings of 
the National Educational Association, 1880, pp. 128-137. Hall, G. S., 
Educational Reforms, in Pedagogical Seminary I, pp. 1-12. Harris, 
W. T., Herbart and Pestalozzi compared, in Educational Review V, 
pp. 417-423. Kriisi, H. (Jr.) Pestalozzi, His Life, Work and Influence, 
pp. 202-248. *Klemm and Hughes, Progress of Education, chaps, i, 
xvi, xvii, xviii. Monroe, W. S., Joseph Neef, and Pestalozzianism in 
America, in Education, XIV, pp. 449-461. *Monroe, Pestalozzianism 
in America. *Sheldon, The Oswego Movement. 

2. Of Herbartianism — was exerted chiefly in Germany but since 1890 
has been quite influential in the United States. Its influence is con- 
fined almost wholly to the process of instruction. 



The Modern Scientific Tendency in Education 51 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 670-671: Brief Course, p. 345- *De- 
Garmo, Herbart and the Herbartians, pt. II, chaps, ii, v, viii, ix. Reg- 
ener, Skizzen zur Geschichte der Padagogik, pp. 209-215. *Year Book 
of the Herbart Club, 1892. 

3. Of Froebelianism — has been more marked in the United States 
than elsewhere. Here it has fundamentally influenced both theory 
and practice especially in the elementary school work. But these 
influences of Froebelianism coincide with other influences which 
have effected profoundedly every phase of educational work and 
thought. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 659-667, 671-673: Brief Course, p. 
346. *Klemm and Hughes, Progress of Education. 



XIII. The Modern Scientific Tendency in Education. 

(I) General Characteristics of the Modern Scientific Tendency in 
Education Are: — 

1. An opposition to the prevailing disciplinary view that the method 
rather than the content of studies are of educational value. 

2. An emphasis upon the supreme importance of knowledge of 
natural phenomena as a means individual welfare and to social 
progress. 

3. Consequently, an attention to curriculum rather than method as 
the important subject in education. 

4. An argument with the general view held by the psychological edu- 
cational reformers, concerning method, especially in regard to 
object teaching. 

5. This influence was exerted through, and these ideas were ex- 
pressed in, the writings on education of various scientists such as 
Spencer and Huxley. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 677-679, 684-692 : Brief Course, pp. 
350-1, 354-360. Bessey, Science and Culture. Clifford, Lectures and 
Essays. Combe, Education, pp. 23-201. Eliot, Educational Reform, 
chaps, i-ii, v-x, xviii. *Eliot, The New Education, in Atlantic Month- 
ly, XXIII, 1869. *Eliot, Future of Medicine, in Science, XXIV, p. 
449. *Huxley, Science and Education. Galloway, Education, Scientific 
and Technical. Mill, J. S., Inaugural Address. Pearson, Grammar of 
Science, esp. chap. i. *Spencer, Education. Spencer, Essays, Scien- 
tific, Political and Speculative. *Youmans, Culture demanded by Mod- 
ern Life, articles by Youmans, Tyndall, Huxley, Whewell, Spencer, 
etc. Also articles on Scientific Education, in periodicals; see Poole's 
Index. 

(II) Science and the Scientific Method in Education. The chief 
arguments for the introduction of the material of the natural science 
and of scientific method in education are based upon the demands of 
modern life and the elements entering into modern culture. 



52 History and Principles of Education 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 679-684: Brief Course, pp. 351-354. 
Bessey, Science and Culture. Eliot, Educational Reform, 1, 2, 5, 10. 
*Eliot, The New Education, Atlantic Monthly, XXIII, 1, 8. *Eliot, 
The new Definition of the Cultivated Man, Proceedings of the National 
Educational Association, 1893, p. 46. *Eliot, The Future of Medicine, 
Science, XXIV, p. 449. Huxley, Science and Education, "The Liberal 
Education." Mill, Inaugural Address. *Pearson, Grammar of Science, 
chap. i. Spencer, Education, chap. i. *Youmans, The Culture De- 
manded by Modern Life (other articles in the same volume by Tyn- 
dall, Huxley, Spencer, Whewell, etc.) 

(III) Science in the School Curriculum as in Method. The natural 
sciences developed rapidly during the latter eighteenth and nineteenth 
century and their content was systematized. Thus there was both a 
teaching basis and a demand for the inclusion of science in the school 
curriculum and for the placing of method on a more scientific basis. 

References : Beckman, History of Inventions. Brewster, Martyrs of Sci- 
ence. Buckley, A Short History of Natural Science. Encyclopaedia 
Britannica, articles : "Astronomy," "Botany," "Physics," etc. Fiske, A 
Century of Science, pp. 1-38. Rice, Twenty-five Years of Scientific 
Progress, pp. 1-55. *Smith, History of Science in the Nineteenth Cen- 
tury. *Whewell, History of the Inductive Sciences. *Williams, Story 
of Nineteenth Century Science. Also "Science" in periodicals ; see 
Poole's Index. 

(IV) Sciences in the Schools. 

1. In the universities, the natural sciences received some formal treat- 
ment during the seventeenth and eighteenth century, but instruc- 
tion by scientific method was a development of the nineteenth cen- 
tury, and the use of methods of investigation and experiments by 
the student were for the most part subsequent to 1850. 

2. This broader scientific work of a pioneer character was done for 
the most part by scientific writers during the sixteenth, seventeenth, 
and eighteenth centuries. 

3. Secondary schools, giving instruction in science, appeared with 
the real-schools in Teutonic countries and the academies of Eng- 
land and the United States in the latter eighteenth and first half of 
the nineteenth century. 

4. In the elementary schools, the phenomena of nature became an ob- 
ject of study with the Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel influence, 
especially with the object teaching of Pestalozzi. Geography was 
very generally introduced in the early part of the nineteenth cen- 
tury and physiology by the middle of the century. Nature study is 
of comparative recent introduction. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 392-702 : Brief Course, pp. 360-367. 
American Institute of Instruction Lectures, 1856. *Brewster, Scien- 
tific Education in our Schools. Boone, History of Education in the 
United States. Carpenter, Science-Teaching. Chamberlain, Ethical 
Functions of Scientific Study. Combe, Education, pp. 201-261. Dex- 



The Sociological Tendency in Education 53 

ter, History of Education in the United States. Dryer, Science in Sec- 
ondary Schools, pp. 197-221. Farrar, Essays on a Liberal Education, 
pp. 241-291. Gill, Science in Secondary Schools. *Lloyd and Bigelow, 
The Teaching of Biology. Hughes, The Making of a Citizen. Popular 
Science Monthly, II, 97; IV, 480; V, 170, etc.; see Poole's Index. 
Pritchett, Service of Science to the University. *Roberts, Education 
in the Nineteenth Century, pp. 121-139. *Youmans, Culture demanded 
by Modern Life. 

<V) Scientific Method and Education. 

1. The introduction of the natural sciences demanded are entirely 
different methods of teaching from the traditional ones. 

2. These have had to be worked out slowly as the result of experi- 
mentation and have not as yet reached the perfection of the meth- 
ods of the more formal and traditional subjects. 

3. These new practices have reacted upon the methods of the tradi- 
tional subjects, inducing an effort to put all teaching method upon 
a more scientific basis instead of an empirical one. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, p. 702 : Briefer Course, chap. xii. *Arm- 
strong, The Teaching of Scientific Method. Armstrong, The Teaching 
of Natural Science. Bourne, The Teaching of Natural Science, in 
Essays on Secondary Education, pp. 126-148. Craner, The Method of 
Darwin, a Study in ScientiHc Method. *Coulter, The Mission of Sci- 
ence in Education, Science, II, pp. 12-281. Fitch, Lectures on Teach- 
ing, chap. xiv. Henfrey, On Education, Claims of Modern Science in 
the Culture Demanded by Modem Life. Huxley, Method and Results, 
pp. 42-129. Jevons, The Principles of Science. Jordon, Nature Study 
and Moral Culture, Proceedings of the National Educational Associa- 
tion, 1896, p. 130. Lloyd and Bigelow, The Teaching of Biology, esp. 
chap. vi. *Norton, Social Service of Science, Science, II, 13, 644. 
*Pearson, Grammar of Science, esp. chap. i. *Sedgwick, Educational 
Value of the Method of Science, Educational Review, V, 243. 



XIV. The Sociological Tendency in Education. 

{I) The General Characteristics of the Sociological Tendency in 
Education Are: — 

1. The emphasis upon education as a social process, that is as the 
process by which society is perpetuated and developed. 

2. Education is then conceived as the process of preparing the indi- 
vidual for successful participation in economic, political and social 
actions. 

3. Consequently there is a very great emphasis upon the importance 
of subject matter and upon training that will fit adequately for the 
duties of life. 

4. As a result, the traditional subjects of study are being reorganized 
and many new ones have been and are being introduced. 



54 History and Principles of Education 

5. These new subjects deal chiefly with social phenomena or industrial 
or economic processes. 

6. The development of systems of schools supported by the state, 
designed for all classes of society and including all grades of 
schools has been the outgrowth of this social conception of edu- 
cation. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 706-711: Brief Course, pp. 369-372. 

(II) Sociological Theories of Education. These views concerning the 
nature and function of education are expressed in the writing of var- 
ious sociological writers. The following theories are the most im- 
portant of these: — 

1. The function of education is the increase of knowledge both by in- 
vestigation and discovery and by dissemination of knowledge. 
This latter is the important function of the schools and upon it 
depends the progress of society. 

2. Education is a most important form of social control, thus securing 
social stability, a condition of progress. 

3. Education is effort to preserve the continuity and to secure the 
growth of common tradition, that is the valuable residuum of ex- 
perience. 

4. Education is viewed as the highest phase of the evolutionary pro- 
cess. It is the method of social evolution, and the means by which 
man negates the principle of non-transmissibility of acquired char- 
acteristics, which expresses the limitations on sub-human evolution. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 716-722: Brief Course, pp. 377-381. 
*Bagley, The Educative Process, pt. I. Barnard, German Teachers 
and Educators. Butler, The Meaning of Education, pt. II, chap. i. 
Davidson, Education as World Building, in Educational Reviezv, XX, 
p. 325. *Dewey, The Child and the Curriculum. Guyau, Education 
and Heredity. *Horne, Philosophy of Education, chaps, iv, v. *How- 
erth, Education and Evolution, in Educational Review, XXIII, XXIV. 
Henderson, Education and the Larger Life. Mackenzie, An Intro- 
duction to Social Philosophy, esp. chap. vi. O'Shea, Education as Ad- 
justment. Ross, Social Control. *Vincent, The Social Mind and Edu- 
cation, chaps, i, iv. *Ward, Dynamic Sociology, II, chaps, x-xiv. 

(III) Education and Citizenship. 

1. The sociological view of education was first advanced in a practical 
form by statesmen and publicists. 

2. Monarchs such as Frederick the Great of Prussia and Maria The- 
resa of Austria, and statesmen such as Franklin, Washington and 
Jefferson, in America and Brougham in England were early repre- 
sentatives of this movement in education. 

3. More recently the theory has been elaborated that education should 
be a direct preparation for good citizenship in political, economic 
and social activities. 



The Sociological Tendency in Education 55 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 711-716: Brief Course, pp. 373-375- 
Barnard, German Teachers and Educators. Cloyd, Franklin as an 
Educator. Henderson, Jefferson on Public Education. *Hughes, The 
Making of Citizens. *Jenks, Education for Citizenship. Thorpe, Ben- 
jamin Franklin and the University of Pennsylvania. 

(IV) The First Stage in the Development of Public Schools. The es- 
tablishment on a quasi-public basis through religious and philanthropic 
motives. This movement is represented by — 

1. The pietistic schools of German of the late 17th and the 18th cen- 
tury. These originally were schools for orphans. 

2. The "philanthropic" schools growing out of the Renaissance and 
Basedow movement. 

3. The Fellenberg manual labor institution. 

4. The Bell and Lancaster monitorial schools which were found in 
all countries, but flourished especially in England and America. 

5. The infant schools on the Wilderspin plan which supplemented the 
monitorial schools. 

6. The schools founded by public school societies in most of the 
cities of the United States in the early 19th century from which 
free public school systems developed. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 722-729 : Brief Course, pp. 381-386. 
Bell, Analysis of the Experiment in Education made at Egmore, near 
Madras. Bourne, The Public School Society of New York. Fitch, 
Educational Aims and Methods, pp. 326-357. Lancaster, British Sys- 
tem of Education, Improvements in Education. Letters from Hofzvyl 
by a Parent. Meiklejohn, An Old Educational Reformer, Dr. Andrew 
Bell. Palmer, New York Public Schools. Religious Education, In 
England Education Department, Special Reports on Educational Sub- 
jects, II, pp. 571-612; IV, pp. 251-320. Salmon, Joseph Lancaster. 
Southey, Life of the Rev. Dr. Andrew Bell. Wightman, Annual of the 
Primary Schools of Boston. Wilderspin, Infant Education ; and other 
works. Woodbridge, Sketches of Hofwyl and the Institutions of M. 
de Fellenberg. 

(V) The Development of Modern State Systems of Schools. This is 
based on political and economic grounds, but is a direct outgrowth of 
these quasi-public schools founded from philanthropic-religious 
motives. 

1. The Public School systems of the German states were the first of 
these and have always remained in advance in the thoroughness 
and effectiveness of their work. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 730-731 : Brief Course, pp. 387-388. 
Barnard, German Teachers and Education. Barnard, German Schools 
and Pedagogy. Barnard, History of Public Instruction in Prussia, 
American Journal of Education, XX, pp. 335-360. Bolton, The Sec- 
ondary School System of Germany. Cousin, Report on the States of 
Public Instruction in Prussia. Dawson, German Life in Town and 



56 History and Principles of Education 

Country, chap. "Education." Donaldson, Lectures on the History of 
Education in Prussia. English Department of Education,_ Special Re- 
ports, III, X On Education. *Hughes, Making of a Citizen. Nohle, 
History of the German Common School System, in Reports of the 
United States Commissioner of Education, (1897-98.) *Russell, Ger- 
man Higher Schools. *Seeley, The Common School System of Ger- 
tion, 1880, pp. 128-137. *Hughes, Froebel's Educational Laws for all 
many. Paulsen, The German Universities. *Paulsen, The German 
Universities and University Studies. 

2. The French Educational System is a development of the nineteenth 
century, the common school system beginning in 1833. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, p. 731: Brief Course, p. 388. *Arnold, 
Popular Education in France. Arnold, Higher Schools and Universi- 
ties in France. Barnard, Primary Schools in France, American Jour- 
nal of Education, XI, pp. 253-254; History of Public Instruction in 
France, id. XX, 217. Barnard, National Education in Europe. Com- 
payre, History of Pedagogy, chap. xxi. English Educational Depart- 
ment. Special Report VII, VIII. *Farrington, The Public Primary 
School Systems of France. Feegan, Elementary Education in France. 
Feegan, Technical, Industrial and Commercial Education in France. 
*Hughes, The Making of a Citizen. Parsons, French Schools through 
American Eyes. For current accounts see Reports of United States 
Commissioner of Education and tiles of Education Review. 

3. The Public School Systems of the United States are chiefly the 
product of the nineteenth century. 

(1) In the New England states, it began in the seventeenth cen- 
tury, and the eighteenth century found a well developed state 
system. 

(2) In the other states it was of post-revolutionary development, 
though the germs were to be found in the religious or philan- 
thropic schools of quasi-public character. 

(3) In the Southern States, attempts were made in the early nine- 
teenth century to establish common school systems. But in all 
cases, the actual development of the system was subsequent to 
the Civil War. 

(4) The states west of the Alleghenies have all provided for an 
educational system from their constitutional organization. 

References: Monroe, Text Book, pp. 734-739: Brief Course, pp. 377-368. 
Blackmar, History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education in 
the United States. *Brown, Making of our Middle Schools. Boone, 
History of Education in the United States. *Butler, Education in the 
United States, I. *Dexter, History of Education in the United States. 
English Education Department, Special Reports, X, XI. *Hinsdale, 
Horace Mann. *Hughes, The Making of a Citizen. Martin, Evolution 
of the Massachusetts State School System. Palmer, The New York 
Public Schools. Randall, History of the Common School System of 
the State of New York. *Report of the Mosely Commission to the 
U. S. Russell, German Higher Schools. Seeley, German School Sys- 
tem. U. S. Bureau of Education, Annual Reports. Wightman, An- 
nals of the Primary Schools. Ware, Development of School Systems. 



The Current Eclectic Tendency 57 

(VI) The Industrial Phase of the Sociological Movement. This is of 
most recent development. It is now argued — 

1. That school work should be more directly related to life ex- 
periences. 

2. That a basic condition in good citizenship is the ability to maintain 
economic independence. 

3. That industrial processes can be made educative. 

4. That children can be held in school only by appealing to those in- 
terests which centre around natural social interests and activities, 
and that in the adolescent stage with most children these interests 
take a vocational aspect. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 739-747 : Brief Course, pp. 383-387. 
Baldwin, Industrial-Social Education. Barnard, Science and Art. 
Briggs, Industrial Training in Reformatory Institutions. *Dewey, The 
School and Society. *Dopp, Place of Industries in Elementary Edu- 
cation. Froude, Handwork before Headwork; in Scottish University 
Addresses, pp. 95-141. Industrial Art in Schools, in U. S. Circular of 
Information, No. 4. Kilgour, Mechanics Institutions. Klemm and 
Hughes, Progress of Education, chaps, xix, xx, xxi, xxii. Mill, Pri- 
mary Industrial and Technical Education (London, 1871). Reports of 
the National Educational Association, 1905-1908. ^Reports of the 
Mass. Commission on Industrial and Technical Education. Snowden, 
Industrial Improvement Schools of Wurtemburg. Trade and Technical 
Education in Germany, in U. S. Department of Labor Annual Reports, 
1902, I, pp. 869-984. Ware, Educational Foundations of Trade and In- 
dustry. For complete bibliography, see Bulletin No. 2 of the National 
Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. 



XV. The Current Eclectic Tendency. 

(I) The Current Eclectic Tendency in Educational Theory and 
Practice is a Result of the Fusion of these Historical Tend- 
encies : — 

1. From the Naturalistic tendency present education derives these 
principles : — 

a. Education is a life process and social process. 

b. That it must centre in the child. 

c. That it must find its ends in the individual and in each partic- 

ular stage of his life. 

2. From the Psychological tendency come these principles: — 
a. From Pestalozzi these principles : — 

(1) That the educator must have an actual knowledge of the 
child and a sympathy with him; 

(2) That education is a growth from within, not a series of ar- 
tificial additions to information; 



58 History and Principles of Education 

(3) That this growth is a result of the activities of the child; 

(4) That objects, not symbols, must form the basis of instruc- 
tion ; 

(5) That sensory not memory processes should form the basis 
of early training. 

b. From Herbart : — 

(1) The idea of scientific process or method of instruction; 

(2) A scientific basis for the organization of the curriculum, as 
the synthesis of human experience; 

(3) The philosophical and practical analysis of character, to be 
scientifically attained through the use of curriculum and 
method as analyzed. 

c. From Froebel : — 

(1) A true conception of the nature of the child; 

(2.) The correct interpretation of the starting point of educa- 
tion in the child's tendency to activity; 

(3) The interpretation of the curriculum as an epitome of the 
world's experiences for the child; 

(4) In general, the application of the theory of evolution to 
education. 

3. From the Scientific tendency: — 

a. A new definition of culture to include all of life's present 

values. 

b. The demand for the introduction of industrial, technical, and 

professional elements into every stage of education. 

c. The use of this material for culture ends. 

d. The general application of more scientific methods of instruc- 

tion in all subjects. 

4. From the Sociological tendency. 

a. The conception of education as the process of social develop- 

ment. 

b. Formulation of the aim of education in terms of good citizen- 

ship. 

c. The consequent requirement of universal education. 

d. The ideal that this training for citizenship must prepare for 

vocation and at the same time preserve individuality and de- 
velop personality. 



(II) The Current Tendencies in Education which are most Promi- 
nent Are: — 

1. The expansion of the curriculum. 



The Current Eclectic Tendency 59 

2. The closer articulation of subjects and of types of schools. 

3. The rationalization of method. 

4. The better preparation of teachers. 

5. Greater specialization in subjects, in schools and in teaching, 

6. The recognition of teaching as a profession, and the adequate 
compensation of its members. 

7. The scientific study of education as a basis for professional train- 
ing of teachers in universities and colleges. 

8. The elimination of religious instruction and religious material 
from schools and the resulting problem of religious education. 

9. The elaboration of a theory of education which harmonizes the 
conflicting claims of the old education of effort and the new edu- 
cation of interest. 

10. The expansion of school work beyond all previous conceptions to 
meet the new needs of society. 

References : Monroe, Text Book, pp. 747-759 : Brief Course, pp. 399-409. 
Bagley, The Educative Process. Butler, Meaning of Education. 
Dewey, My Pedagogical Creed. Dewey, School and Society. Dewey, 
Child and Curriculum. Eliot, Educational Reforms. Hanus, Educa- 
tional Aims and Educational Values. Hughes, The Making of a Citi- 
zen. Klemm. and Hughes, Progress of Education in the Nineteenth 
Century. Reports of the Proceedings of the National Educational 
Association, esp. the annual address on Educational Progress for the 
current magazines see Poole's Index under "Educational Progress," 
and "Current Educational Problems." 



9 IS 



PUBLICATIONS OF EXTENSION TEACHING 

Syllabi of courses of instruction have been issued which contain out- 
lines of study, bibliographies, and references, and furnish systematic 
guides for the private student, reading circles, and classes of instruction. 
Series A contains syllabi of collegiate courses. Series B contains syllabi 
of shorter lecture courses. 

Series A 

A. i — Shakspere — By Professor F. H. Sykes 
A. 2 — Old Testament Literature — By Dr. R. M. Hodge 
A. 3 — American Literature — By Clyde Furst, M. A. 
A. 4 — Architecture — Renaissance — Modern — By Professor Hamlin 
A. 5 — English Language and Grammar — By Professor G. P. Krapp 
A. 6 — English Literature — XIX Century — By Prof. F. H. Sykes 
A. 7 — Representative American Writers — By Clyde Furst, M. A. 
A. 8 — Teaching English in Elementary Schools — By Prof. F. T. Baker 
A. 9 — Development of Instrumental Music — By Mr. T. W. Surette 
A. io — Architecture — Ancient, Mediaeval — By Professor Hamlin 
A. ii — English Composition — By Professor H. V. Abbott 
*A. 12 — The Philosophy of Education — By Prof. John Angus MacVannel 
A. 13 — Teaching of School Music — By Professor C. H. Farnsworth 
A. 14 — English History to the Tudors — By Professor C. A. Beard 
A. 15 — English History from James I — By Professor C. A. Beard 
§A. 16 — General Geography — By Professor R. E. Dodge 
*A. 17 — History and Principles of Education — By Prof. Paul Monroe 
A. 18 — School Administration — By Professor S. T. Dutton 
A. 19 — Modem European History — By Professor C. A. Beard 
A. 20 — Teaching in Elementary Schools — By Professor G. D. Strayer 
A. 21 — Wood and Wood-Working — By William Noyes, A. M. 

A. 22 — American Government — By Professor S. P. Duggan 

*A. 23 — Theory and Practice of Teaching in Elementary Schools — By Pro- 
fessors Strayer, Baker, Dodge, Johnson, and Mr. Upton 

Series B 

B. 1 — The Solar System — By Dr. S. A. Mitchell 

B. 2 — The French Revolution — By Professor J. T. Shotwell 

B. 3 — The Vegetation of the Earth — By Professor F. E. Lloyd 

B. 4 — Climate and Mankind — By Professor R. E. Dodge 

B. 5 — Metallurgy — By Professor Bradley Stoughton, and Drs. M. N. 

Bolles and Wm. Campbell 
B. 6 — Greatest American Writers — By Clyde Furst, M. A. 
B. 7 — Cathedrals of the Middle Ages— By Prof. A. D. F. Hamlin 
B. 8 — Problems of Human Nature — By Professor E. L. Thorndike 
B. 10 — Representative German Authors — By Professor R. Tombo 
B. 11 — Organic Evolution — By Professor H. E. Crampton 
B. 12 — Spanish America — By Professor W. R. Shepherd 
B. 14 — Expansion of United States — By Professor C. A. Beard 
B. 16 — Industrialism and Democracy — By Professor C. A. Beard 
B. 17 — The Great Masters of Music — By Mr. D. G. Mason 
B. 18 — The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel — By Prof. B. Stoughton 
B. 19 — The History of American Poetry — By Professor C. H. Page 
B. 20 — The Architecture of Great Cities — By Professor A. D. F. Hamlin 
B. 21 — Our Country's Resources — By Dr. C. F. Walker 

Price 10 cents per copy, except *A. 12, 17, 23, which are double 
numbers, price 20 cents. Address : Extension Teaching, Teachers 
College, Columbia University, New York. 

§In Preparation. 






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